^.';T;^>';i^' 



; 



^^^ c ^ 



LAVAS AND SOILS 



OF THE 



'HAWAIIAN ISLANDS. 



Investigations of the 

Hawaiian Experiment Station 

and Laboratories. 



WALTER MAXWELL 
Director and Chief Chemist. 



HONOLULU : 

HAWAIIAN GAZETTE COMPANY. 

1808. 



Consulate Geneol of the United States, 

Honolu-lu., H. I. 
APR 27 1898 



LAVAS AND SOILS 



OF THE 



HAWAIIAN ISLANDS. 



INVESTIGATIONS • 

OF THE 

HAWAIIAN EXPERIMENT STATION 

AND 

LABORATORIES 

BY 

WALTER MAXWELL, - - - Director and Chief Chemist 
Assisted by 

J. T. CRAWLEY First Assistant Chemist, 

C. F. ECKART Second Assistant Chemist 

And 

E. G. CLARKE, Field Assistant. 



1, Origin and Nature of Hawaiian Soils. 

2. Availability and Loss of the Elements of Plant 

Food in Hawaiian Soils. 



Published bv Order of the Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association, 
\* 

i8q8. 




6346 



Trustees- and Members of the Haicaiiau Sugar Planters^ As- 
sociation. 

Gentlemen:—! hereby submit a report, setting forth 
the results of investigations of Hawaiian soils. 

The scope of the investigations, involving a careful 
study of the lavas from which the soils have been formed, 
may appear, at first sight, to extend beyond the require- 
ments of the subject: An examination of the report in 
detail will, I believe, make it very clear that it would not 
have been possible to arrive at an understanding of the 
great differences in the nature of the soils, and in their 
economic values, without a preceding study of the lavaft 
such as was undertaken. 

The discussion in detail of the chemical processes, 
and of the laboratory methods, is required in order that 
other scientific men may follow the mode of the investi- 
gations, and judge of the value of the results. 

In laying the plan of the investigations, and in the 
study and adoption of methods for its execution, I have 
endeavored, before all else, to observe and be guided by 
Nature. For this reason, repeated visits have been made 
to each plantation and district on the four islands: soils 
have been examined in place, with the lavas from which 
they were derived, and in careful connection with the 
local climatic conditions and environment. 

In the efforts to establish a reliable mode of estimat- 
ing the state of availability of the essential element* 
of plant food in the soils, I have tried to find out the 
processes, and the results of the processes, that operate 
in the field; and then to bring the methods and procedure 
of the laboratory into harmony with these. The result* 



will be found to amply justify aud reward the course that 
has been followed. 

In carryiii^- out such a plan of investigation as I have 
described, assistance in each part of the work was a 
necessity. Therefore I wish — First, to acknowledge the 
aid furnished by the gentlemen on plantations in obtain- 
ing soils, and in recording the climatic and other local 
conditions. 

Further, without the co-operation of the gentlemen in 
the laboratory the execution of the work had not been 
possible. To First Assistant Crawley I have been greatly 
indebted, and not only for the many extremely delicate 
analytical results that he has furnished, but also foi^ 
valuable critical observations in the adjustment of the 
methods of the laboratory, in order to compare with the 
processes in the field, upon which the laboratory proced- 
ure was based. Also, in the analysis of lavas and soils. 
Second Assistant Eckart has rendered indispensable as- 
sistance. 

In the outdoor part of the experiments, which Avere 
conducted in the experiment station field, I have been 
ably and faithfully assisted, in the carrying out in detail 
of tests and observations by Field Assistant Clarke. In 
fact, it is not possible to say too much of the assistance 
received from these several sources. 

With these and continued investigations of the soils 
as a basis, the experiment station is now proceeding with 
n broad plan, embracing the RcJntioiis; of »s'o//.s' to Crops. 

Walter Maxwell, 
Director and Chief Chemist. 

Honolulu, H. L, 1898. 



DEFINITIONS. 



Symbol. Name. 

Si O, Silica. 

Ti O2 Titanic Acid. 

P, O5 Phosphoric Acid. 

SO3 Sulphuric Acid. 

CO2 C^arbonic Acid. 

H CI Hydrochloric Acid. 

CI Chlorine. 

Fe O Ferrous Oxide. 

Fe2 O3 Ferric Oxide. 

AI2 O3 Alumina. 

Fe2 AI2 O,; Iron and Alumina. 

CaO Lime. 

Mg O Maiiuesia. 

Mn3 O4 ^Manganese Oxide. 

K2 O Potash. 

Nao O Soda. 

N Nitroceu. 



ORIGIN AND NATURE 

OF 

HAWAIIAN SOILS. 



The mineral constituents of all soils are furnished by 
rocks or lavas, as a result of disintegration. This truth, 
in the examination of particular soils, causes us, in the 
first place, to give precise attention to the rocks from 
which these soils have been derived. 

HAWAIIAN LAVAS AND ROCKS. 

The Islands of Hawaii are of volcanic origin, therefore 
the rock materials composing the mountains and eleva- 
tions above the sea are igneous in character. Professop 
Dana says, "The Hawaiian Island group is an example 
of a line of great volcanic mountains. Fifteen volcanoes 
of the first class have existed, and have been in brilliant 
action along the line." 

Petrographically, the lavas and rocks composing the 
great mass of the structure of these Islands are hasaltio 
lavas. Eecurring to the definitions of Dana, "these 
basaltic lavas belong to the same class, although they 
vary widely: — in color, from dark to light gray; in struc- 
ture, from compact to highly vesicular, and from those 
of uniform grain to those which are prominently por- 



phyritie, with chrysolite or feldspar.'' In his niiueralo- 
gical examinations, whioli are confirmed by chemical 
analyses, Dana speaks of only one "remarkable felds- 
pathic andesyte of a totally different rock from any 
other obtained from the Islands," which did not "con^ 
form to that of normal basalt." 

In <h(^ following definite examinations of Hawaiian 
lavas, their chemical composition was taken as rei)resent^ 
ing more exactly the standpoint from which, in the plan 
of our investigations, these lavas, as the materials fur- 
nishing soils, must be considered. In order to obtain 
a widely representative view of their chemical composi- 
tion, typical samples of great lava masses were selected 
personally by the writer, in the course of repeated in- 
spections, from districts on Hawaii, Maui, Kauai, and 
Oaliu, and the average composition of these lavas is given 
in the following table, and in comparison with the analy- 
ses of American basalts, for which we are indebted to 
Professor Clarke, of the TJ. S. Geological Survey. Indivi- 
dual analyses of Hawaiian lavas will be u,iven later: — 



Materials. 


Analyses 


SiOj 


Ah O3 


FeaO, 

Per 
cent. 

13 36 
9 50 


CaO 

Per 
cent. 

8 99 
8.29 


Mg 


Na, 


K^O 


Hawaiian Lavas 

American Basalts , . . 


18 
20 


Per 
cent. 

47.90 
49.15 


Per 
cent 

18 23 

15.66 


Per 
cent. 

6 05 
7.90 


Per 
cent. 

2 20 
2.84 


Per 
cent. 

1 50 
1.90 



The chemical composition of Hawaiian lavas conforms 
to the normal constitution of basalts, and is in general 
agreement Avilh that of basalts selected from igneous 
rock masses found in widely separated regions in 
America. 



DISINTEGRATION OF LAVAS AND ROCKS. 

The disintegration of rocks, or the action by which 
these become resolved into the mineral constituents of 
soils, is usually defined under the expression of "weather^ 
ing," which is understood to include all the operations 
of climatic influences— heat, cold, drought, moisture— 
under which solid rocks and stones are reduced to pal- 
pable earth. That single term is quite inadequate to com- 
prehend the processes by which the disintegration of 
rocks is brought about, and in the matter of Hawaiian 
lavas it may be possible to show^ that, essentially prior to 
the action of simple ircathrriiH/, there were other definite 
physical and chemical causes, whose action covered wide 
areas of distribution, and which were not only primary 
agencies in the decomposition of these lavas, but factor* 
determining very specifically the kinds of soils they were 
to form. 

We were led into the investigation of causes of rock 
disintegration, that have operated prior to the contact 
of iceatherbig, by reason of evident differences in the soils 
of given areas, which had been derived from the same 
lava flows, and essentially subjected to the same climatic 
influences. 

One of the effective agents of rock disintegration is 
oxygen. It acts directly as a free element; more potently 
through the medium of water; still more effectively in 
and as steam. When lavas are ejected, or flow, during 
periods of crater activity the action may be caused, and 
is frequently accompanied, by the inlet of water into the 
crater, which is turned to steam, and the steam becomes 
enveloped and held by the lava. Lavas, in which steam 
has been enclosed, are more or less marked by a vesicular 



10 



stnu-tuiv, the vesicles or holes being left in the lava 
where the steam has disappeared on cooling. The steam, 
however, has permeated the cold lava, and is found to 
have entered partly into combination with its consti- 
tnents. The following table gives the average partial 
composition of Hawaiian lavas, examined bv ns, that are 
distinguished by different anionnts of moisture and com- 
bined water; one class being close and compact in struc- 
ture, and the other from less to more vesicular; yet all 
these were soimd lavas in appearance, those containing 
the most water being more brittle, and their constituents 
minerals — augite, chrysolite, etc. — in a more mature 
form of crvstallization. 



Lavas. 


Mois- 
ture, 


Com- 
bined 
Water. 


SiOa 


Fe O 1 

+ AI2 O3 
Fe.Oa 


Ca 


Non- Hydrous Lavas .... 
Hydrous Lavas 


Per 
cent. 

0.40 

0.90 


Per 
cent 

0.14 

2.20 


Per 
cent. 

48 10 
45 20 


Per Per 
cent. cent. 

12 7.5 20.70 
14.01 18.20 


Per 
cent. 

9 24 
8.23 



As the taking u]) of oxygen and water are the first step* 
in the decomposition of rocks, it is indicated by the bot- 
tom line of analyses that these hydr(nis lavas, notwith- 
standing their brittle and sound appearance, have al- 
ready passed the initial stage in disintegration. 

A second ami most effective class of (u/eiits irliicJi operate 
ill the disintcij ration of lavas are mineral acids, which are 
a result of the primary oxydizing action of steam ui)on 
the lavas of high temperature, lying at depths from the 
surface. 

When the writer, in the course of a second visit of in- 
spection 1(» the Island of Hawaii in the spring of 1890, 
first a])]>r()acli('d tlie location of the active cratei" of 



11 



Kilauea, a new order of suggestions occurred to him, 
which, upon a closer survey of the conditions and 
phenomena presented by the actual crater and its sur- 
roundings, developed into definite thoughts, and into a 
series of analytical examinations, which were to bear 
upon the attempt to explain the causes of difference in 
Hawaiian soils already spoken of. 

The crater of Kilauea, according to data furnished to 
tis by Professor Alexander, Surveyor-General, is 3972 feet 
above the sea. Within the walls of the crater is enclosed 
an area of 4.14 sq. miles, or 2650 acres. The present area, 
or lake of burning liquid activity, may not cover more 
than fifty acres, and forms a crater within the crater. 
The total area of the vast crater, however, is covered by 
activity of volcanic phenomena. Viewed in the morn- 
ing before sunrise, when the air temperature is low, a 
large part of the crater floor is more or less concealed 
by condensing steam, which is issuing from fissures and 
fractures in the lava, that were produced on partial cool- 
ing. Some preliminary observations showed us that at 
some places of escape the steam gave no reaction with 
litmus paper; in other places a mildly acid reaction was 
found; whilst over other well-defined areas the issuing 
steam was intensely acid and hot It was further noticed 
that, over the steaming areas, deposits were laid of dis- 
solved materials brought up through fissures; and over 
areas of intense action of acid steam the general surface 
of the lavas was undergoing acute change. 

During the first visit to the crater, typical samples of 
sound lava, of decomposing lava, and of several decom 
position products, were taken, and brought to the labor- 
atory for examination. We made a second visit a few 
months later, being prepared to make more precise ob- 



12 



servations ii])(>ii the nature of the active ajjients in lava 
decomposition actually operating at this time, and to 
locate and identify some of the products of disintegration. 

The temperature of the steam leaving the fissures 
shoAved every degree from the lowest up to the last point 
of condensation. There are also fissures fi'oni which, 
doubtless, moisture is escaping, but the temperature is 
too high for condensation at the lava surface. The 
writer found no <lithculty in lighting a cigar on the walls 
of the fissures one foot from the surface, whilst after 
sundown, the crevasses near to the actual lake, at a 
depth of five to ten feet, become i-ed and luminous with 
heat. 

Actual tests of the character of the steam issuing from 
the lavas showed localities where the steam was strictly 
neutral; others where a slight acidity was acting, and the 
areas, where we have already said that the escap- 
ing steam was intensely acid and hot, the water, which 
we obtained by use of a simple arrangement for condens- 
ing the steam, was found to contain 4.92% of acid, which 
was exclusively sulphuric, not a trace of chlorine being 
given, indicating that the crater is closed against an 
inroad of the sea, Miiich is but some twenty miles dis- 
tant. 

At the time of examining the temperature and char- 
acter of the steam, samples were taken of normal lava, 
of lava being acted upon by the highly acid steam, and of 
materials resulting from the steam action. In the ])ar- 
tial analyses in the following table: 

A — is a sample of lava froth, or scnm, wliicli rests to a 
depth (»f six inches upon the more solid lava. This lava 
is normal, and not acted \\]n)U by steam, and is a dark 
gray in color. 



13 



B— is a sample of the same lava as A, aud thus of the 
same lava flow, but is being acted upon by sulphurous 
steam. The color is changed from the normal dark gray 
to variations between yellow and vivid red, due to action 
of steam on the iron, which has been notably altered. 

C is a sample of material taken from the lips of slight- 

ly acid fissures, whence the steam is constantly issuing. 
This material is, in part, deposits of matters brought up 
by the steam, and partly the lava in place which has 
undergone change, and become mixed with the deposit. 



Elements. 


A 


B 


c 


PiOa 

Ah O3 


Per cent. 

49 010 

16 129 

7 291 

10 100 

10.660 

647 

4 201 

0.240 


Per cent. 

55 490 
16.000 

5 650 

6 830 

7 957 
686 
4 403 
601 


Per cent. 
62 450 

9 220 


Fe2 O3 


5.010 


Fe 


3 018 


Ca ().. 


4.190 


KzO 

Nay 


28O 
300 


SO 3 


1 







These analyses indicate, as we shall see later, only in 
a small measure the decomposing action of sulphurous 
steam, whereby the products of disintegration do not 
compare with the decomposition products of si)upJe 
tveathering. The action of the acid steam, which is 
denoted by the analysis of material B, is operating over 
a number of separate areas which in the aggregate make 
nil about 150 acres, or one-fifteenth of the whole crater. 
These separate areas are distinguishable from the great- 
er part of the crater surface at a great distance. The 
lava over the most part of the crater floor is still dark in 
color, or changing slowly to a lighter gray, or faintly 
chocolate shade, whilst the areas affected by the intense 



14 



action of the acid steiini are rapidly changed to surfaces 
of striking- light reds and yellows. 

Much more acute, advanced, and far-reaching exam- 
ples of lava disintegration under the action of physical 
and chemical agents, than we have described as going on 
over the crater floor, are proceeding upon areas lying at 
present, outside the crater, and situated upon the boun- 
daries of its opposite ends, and some two to three miles 
apart. Those areas are known as the ''Kilauea sulphur 
banks," which term aptly expresses the nature of the 
agency in operation. The sulphur banks near by the 
Volcana hotel, which is located on the eminence over- 
looking the crater, are those best known; but during 
the writer's last visit to the crater, when the whole areas 
Avere traversc-d and re-traversed and examined, the area 
of intense disintegrating action at the opposite end of 
the crater was found to be on a larger scale, and many of 
the products of the decomposition better separated and 
defined. ]5ut as the observations made during the pre- 
vious visit, and the sam])les of lava, and of decomposition 
products, taken for analytical examination, were con- 
fined more chiefly to the area in the locality of the A^ol- 
cano House, observations made dui'ing the later visit 
were also largely devoted to that area. 

The area near to the Volcano House covers some fifty 
acres, and may Ix^ described as a grand solfdtaid, over 
whose surface are found numberless fumaroles, which 
are holes of sizes varying from one to twenty square feet, 
connected by fissures with the hot interior. Many of 
these holes and fissures go down unknown feet in direct 
depth, and care is necessary Avhen moving near to them. 
At the time of our second visit, a horse belonging to the 
hotel slipped into one of those fissures, and was never 



15 



seen, and no soimd from the auiiiml heard again. 
Amongst other general phenomena which impress the 
observer — it is likely that there is no other spot upon the 
surface of the planet at this time whicli can so acutely 
appeal to persons inclined to think upon material 
phenomena, or even upon the origin of certain expiring 
philosophies, as the one of which we are speaking — is 
the behaviour of vegetation. Over a large part of this 
solfatara grasses and weeds are existing; and by the 
sides of the fumaroles, bushes, and even trees, have 
reached a reasonable size. We distinctly noted the roots 
of the Ohia-Lehua, and of certain coarse ferns, grown 
out on the sides of the funmroles, up which steam, laden 
heavily with sulphurous acid, was escaping, and whose 
leaves were white with deposits of sulphur, and yet the 
Ohia and ferns are growing and strong. But these 
organisms, in their growth, are assimilating nitrogen! 
Is this un-nitrifi(^d nitrogen? Or are micro-organisms ex- 
isting in these intensely acid conditions, and preparing 
un-nitrified nitrogen for those plants? Here are 
phenomena which perhaps have not been known of when 
certain existing theories on plant nutrition were founded! 
In our examination of the work of lava disintegration, 
which is going on at this moment, and upon a scale so 
large and grand that it must almost lie outside our con- 
ception and range were we limited to the experience of 
chemical processes in laboratories, we obtained samples 
of sound lavas; of these lavas in varying stages of decom 
position; of the agent under whose action the disin- 
tegration is taking place; and of certain of the products 
into which the solid lava is being resolved. And in speak- 
ing of these samples, it may be said that they do not rep- 
resent small amounts, but bulks of such vast proportion 



16 



that tlicir utilization has been inuler consideration f<>i> 
commercial i)ni'iH)ses. Over the whole area, sometimes 
upon the top, in other places a feAV inches beneath the 
surfaces, and again upon the sides of the fumaroles, 
masses of pure sulphur are crystallized out. Then, there 
are alum deposits; heaps of extracted lime, lyinii in the 
form of almost pure gypsum, and beds of so-called red 
and yellow ochres, wlierc^in we have to search for the 
iron and silica. 

At tliis time, we have before us the most extraor- 
dinarily illustrative specimens, showing the course of 
disintegration by Avhicli the solid lava is resolved into tlie 
products nauKMl. These were obtained by working away 
several feet of the outer edge of the decomposing lava 
and securing hloels in place, which had never been expos- 
ed to the air, and ui)on which the sulphurous steam waft 
constantly acting. At the tiuje of taking the specimens 
the lava blocks were so hot that the hand could not touch 
them, and the steani, on i>assing into the air, was 90°C 
(194° Fahrenheit), but down in the interior of the lava> 
in tissures, no steam was visible, showing that tli(^ heat 
was above 100°C. The water collected by cond(Mising 
this steam at a point of exit contained 5% of sulphuric 
acid, but no chlorine. Two of these larger specimen 
blocks of lava, in states of decomposition, are partially 
studded with mature crystals of sul])hur. Where the 
acid steani has eaten out cavities, these are partly tilled 
with clustered crystals of gypsum, and some alums, each 
of these being vei-y (U^tinitely sei)arat(Ml. Over the sur- 
face, and within the blocks is seen the irou gathering to- 
gether in pockets of red ochre, and the silica separating 
in distinct masses of a so-called yidlow ochre, and in 
places the silica is dejxtsited almost pure. With most 



17 



of the numerous specimens collected by us the separation 
and crystallization have gone on and matured since they 
were brought to the laboratory, and we have before us, 
not only exact, but very beautiful examples of the disin- 
tegration of the lava, and the formation of the product^^ 
that result from their decomposition. 

The action of steam in the disintegration of igneous 
rocks has been remarked upon by several observers. 
Darwin, in speaking of steam action upon tracliytic rocks 
at Terceira, in the Azores, says, ''the steam is emitted 
from several fissures: it is scentless, soon blackens iron, 
and is of too high a temperature for the hand to bear." 
The steam spoken of by Darwin, which he says was 
"scentless," differs from the acid steam that we have 
described. That the steam "blackens iron" is suggestive 
that some acid was present; and as Darwin did not make 
any analytical examinations, either of the steam or the 
decomi)osition products, we are inclined to think that he 
was dealing with phenomena resembling these that we 
are describing. Moreover, Darwin says "the manner in 
which the solid trachyte is changed on the borders of 
these orifices is curious: first, the base becomes earthy, 
with red freckles, evidently due to the oxydation of 
particles of iron; then it becomes soft. After the mass 
is converted into clay, the oxide of iron seems to be 
removed from some parts, which are left perfectly white, 
whilst in other neighboring parts, which are of the 
brightest red color, it seems to be deposited in greater 
quantity. The inhabitants use these substances for 
white washing." We are, from these products that Dar- 
win describes, quite impressed that he was dealing with 
a corresponding condition of things to what we have ob- 
served at the Kilauea crater; yet we cannot say more, 



18 



since the great scientist did not note the presence of 
definite decomposition i^roducts, and does not fnrnish 
any analytical data bearing upon phenomena, which he 
says "are still obscure." Darwin remarks that these 
things "have been observed in other places, in the Italian 
volcanic islands, and by Spallanzani, Dolomien, and 
others," which statement accentuates our persuasion 
that in speaking of phenomena found at Kilauea we are 
dealing with matters that have had a more or lesa 
universal concern in the history of rock disintegration 
and soil formation on our globe. 

We shall now give a small series of analyses of decom- 
position products of lava collected by us at Kilauea. To 
economize space these are given in a table. 

A— is a sam]^le of almost pure gypsum which is found 
distributed in enormous quantities. 

B — was taken from the "alum deposit," and is a mix- 
ture of sulphates of the alkalies, iron and alumina, with 
the excess of sulphur and sulphuric acid. 

r — is a portion of the so-called "red ochre" which is 
found in largo masses and layers, and more or less defi- 
nitely separated from the other products. 

D — is (•(»m])osed mainly of silica which has been releas- 
ed by th(^ action of the sulphuric acid in the steam from 
the lava bases. It is yellow on drying, and becomes pink 
on glowing. 

E is a material still showing th(^ lava form, but exhibits 
complicated modes of disintegration, one result of wln<h 
is that the silica increases to a falling ratio of the other 
elements. 



19 



COMPOSITION OF THE PRODUCTS OF DISINTEGRATION BEING 
FORMED FROM THE LAVAS AT THE KILAUEA CRATER. 



Elements 


A 


B 


c 


D 


E 


Average of all 
Products. 


Average of 
Sound Lavas. 




Per 
cent. 


Per 
cent. 


Per 
cent. 


Per 
cent. 


Per 
cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


SiOi 


4.0 


0.8 


32 5 


75.8 


67.0 


360 


49.9 


Fe2 O3... 


0.7 


12.3 


44.5 


4.9 


8.6 


14.0 


14.4 


AI2 O3 . . . 




26 2 


18.1 


1.5 


9.7 


11.0 


14.5 


CaO 


43.4 


0.5 


0.2 




4.3 


9.7 


9.9 


MgO 


0.5 


4.6 


0.5 




6.7 


2.5 


4.9 


K2 




05 


0.1 


6.2 


03 


0.2 


0.8 


Na-. 0.... 




1 1 


2.2 


4.6 


3.2 


2.2 


2,4 


SO3 

S . . 


44.73 


45 6 


1.6 
3.5 


1.3 
12.8 























The analyses are only partially complete. The water 
is not given on account of the presence of sulphur and 
other volatile bodies. 

The table of data indicates the processes that are 
actually operating, and given products into which the 
lavas are being resolved by modes of disintegration that 
are visible to-day in the largest natural laborator^^ upon 
the globe. These data have for us a profound significance 
and value, aiding in the general study of the processes 
by which lavas have been resolved into the compounds 
that form other kinds of rocks, or into the materials of 
which our soils are composed, phenomena to which we 
shall recur at a later time. 

The column containing the "average of all products," 
which is compared with the composition of the "average 
of sound lavas," is not to be taken to mean that we have 
found, and attempted to put together again, the 
materials of which the lava was composed: This would 
be merely toying with a matter of the first magnitude, 
and in its nature, impossible; since much of the more 
soluble products has been borne away in solution by the 
rains. The data in the column imply that disintegration 



20 



products have been fouud, the average composition of 
which is compared with that of the sound lavas. 

The presence of sulphuric acid and sulphur leaves no 
doubt as to the agent by which the disintegration has 
been chiefly caused; and the behaviour of the alkalies, 
especially soda, suggest matters to which we shall recui> 
when speaking more definitely of soils. 

Ill coiiuoctiou with those examinations of the lava, 
lava decomposition products, and of the agents by which 
the disintegration is being caused, an experiment was 
made in our laboratory showing the action of acid steam 
on lava. Lava, of a known chemical composition, was 
broken into pieces of the size of a large bean, and put in^ 
to a glass tube. This tube was connected with an 
Erlenmeyer flask containing a five per cent, solution of 
sulphuric acid, which is the acid strength of the con- 
densed steam operating at the crater Avhere our sample* 
of the products of decomposition were taken. The other 
end of the tube was connected with a condenser, by 
which means the acid solution rose as steam through the 
lava in the tube, and returned to the flask. Exactly 52.9 
grams of lava were put into the tube, and the acid steam 
acted upon it for 120 days. After this period of action, 
1.221 grams of solid matter was found in the solution, 
the composition of which was as follows, after deducting 
the amounts of soda and silica dissolved out of the glass 
of the Erlenmeyer flask. 

Si O 2 =16.00 per cent. 
Feo 0.3= 1.70 per cent. 
AL, 0.5= 4.56 i^er cent. 
Ca"o= 6.53 per cent. 
K.> 0= 5.58 iier cent. 
Nag 0= 5.00 per cent. 
SO^,, etc.=60.73 per cent. 



21 



These data are highly instructive in indicating the 
mode in which the disintegration may be proceeding in 
nature. Tliey show the amount of silica that is released 
by the action of the sulphuric acid on the bases in the 
lava. Also it is seen how the "alum deposits" are 
formed by the separation of the alumina and alkalies, as 
suljihates, from the lava. The removal of the lime ac^ 
counts just as simply for the deposits of gypsum, whilst 
the iron is less affected, which suggests that those decom- 
position products of the lava that are extremely rich in 
iron are residual, rather than separation products, show- 
ing what is left of the original lava after the soluble 
silica, and the elements which form the alums and gyp- 
sum have been removed. There are other modes of disin- 
tegration that are not yet as well understood, and which 
result in the evident removal of the iron. 

The time that has been given to the study of phenomena 
that are actually visible at the present time in the pro 
cesses of disintegration operating at the Kilauea crater 
is for the purpose of determining, if possible, a connec- 
tion between what is now going on at the volcano, and 
what may have taken place in other localities of past 
volcanic action, and the relation of these phases and re- 
sults of volcanic action to the marked differences in our 
soils. The questions that present themselves to us are 
the following: — Have the modes of lava — disintegration, 
that are going on to-day in the locality of the active 
crater, operated in past times, and in other parts of these 
islands? If so, how, and to what extent, have the soils 
derived from the lavas been affected by those intense 
physical and chemical processes of rock disintegration? 
We shall now try to see what can be known along the 
line of these questions. 



22 



Evidences of Chemical Action In the Disintegration of 
the Older Lavas, and in the Formation of Soils. — The 
study of physical and chemical action as a factor in the 
disintegration of lavas, and in determining- the character 
of soils, has, so far, been confined to the phenomena at- 
tending the decomposition of lavas seen to-day at the 
Kilauea crater. To ascertain wliether these ])hysical 
and chemical causes have operated on a grand scale, 
and over wide areas in the other volcanic regions we 
have to go out and examine the lavas and soils in the 
several parts of all the islands. In order to closely con- 
nect further investigation with the observations made 
at the active volcano, we shall continue with the — 

Island of Hawaii — This island, which is the largest 
in the group, comprises some 4,210 s<|uare miles of sur- 
face. Its formation has resulted from the action of four 
grand centers of eruption, or "craters of the first class," 
viz — Manna Loa, Mauna Kea, Hualalai, and tlie crater 
of the Kohala mountain system, whose location is in- 
definite. The present active crater of Kilauea cannot be 
included iu this class, since it has not borne any similar 
part in the work of construction of the island. 

From a point of elevation iu tlie Kohala mountains, 
from which the writer made these topographic observa- 
tions, the system of grand craters is completely under 
view: with ]Mauna Kea to the left, and Hualalai to the 
right, Mauna Loa closes n\} tlie view, at a distance of 
some sixty miles, to the south. From tliis point of eleva- 
tion it is indicated how each of the four great mountains 
had an individual oi'igin and growth, first coming into 
visible existence above the surface of the ocean, and 
building up by the material of subsequent eruptions, until 
the huge cones were raised res]>e(t ively 1 :>,(>","> feet; 



23 



13,805 feef; 8,275 feet, and 5,505 feet above the level of 
the sea. These cones are at distances of some thirty miles 
the one from the next nearest one. The spaces between 
the cones, which were filled by the ocean during the 
opening history of the construction, now form the in- 
terior valleys, the ocean divisions not only having become 
closed up, but the spaces have been raised to grand 
plateaus, by the infilling of the great discharges from 
the crater cones, and lie at levels of some 3,000 feet above 
the sea. The filling in of the ocean spaces separating the 
four great mountains, and the forming of the valleys, 
were not wholly done by the discharges from the sum- 
mits of those great cones: This work was largely effected 
by side-flows or outbursts from the sides of the great 
mountains at different altitudes. Those "outbursts" be- 
came more or less continuous at the places of origin, and 
their locations are now marked by "craters of the 
secondary class," known frequently as "lateral cones," 
also as "tufa cones," wliich vary in dimensions from 
small mounds, that are hardly longer distinguishable, 
to basin — formed craters enclosing areas of many acres. 
In the course of the ride across the Waimea plain, and 
from the vantage point on the slopes of the Kohala moun- 
tains, the writer became able to somewhat grasp the 
magnificent vastness of the operations that liad gone to 
the building of the island! Not only had each of the 
four grand cones raised their burning heads out of the 
sea, filling space and air with clouds of steam and con- 
fusion, an idea of which was given to us through the 
recitals of the "side flow" from Manna Loa in 1868, when 
the stream of lava poured down into the sea, heating the 
water to more than the hand could bear, for more than 
a mile out in the ocean, and killing all living things 



24 



within it tliat liad uot escaped to pelagic depths, but the 
distribution of lateral cones bad added a still further 
vastnoss to the operations, and an increased confusion, 
and probably splendour, to the scene! In the space of a 
day's ride we noted no less than eighty-nine of these 
lateral cones, and observed mounds covered by forest on 
the mountain slopes which suggested many more. Each 
one of those, in its day and measure, was a center of 
eruptive force. Lava, in some form, came from their 
throats, and fumes and steam escaped from fissures in 
the lavas in their locations, leaving marks of their action 
in disintegration to which we must specially recur. This 
distribution of centers of eruptive action gives to the 
valleys dividing the great cones the true character of 
vast volcanic plains, which afford the most impressive 
sight of its kind that the writer has ever beheld. 

PEIMARY EFFECTS OF CHEMICAL ACTION ON 

LAVAS. 

In the previous paragraphs the centers of eruptive 
action have been divided into "craters of the first class," 
and "lateral craters," which we shall, for our present pur- 
pose, speak of as "tufa cones." The great craters, during 
the periods of the most vigorous activity, have dis- 
charged the lavas which have built up the great rock 
masses forming the structure of tliese islands. These 
rock masses indicate that the lavas were put forth at 
high temperatures; that they flowed smoothly, and cooled 
down into their present state without much change in 
composition. There are indications, however, that the 
character of the discharges from the great craters was 
various: Instead of tlu' high t(Mn])eratur(\ aud fnM^-fldW- 







< \ 






25 



ing lavas, lavas of lower temperature, and puddled into a 
state of mud by excess of fresh water, were also dis^ 
charged from the great craters. But these lavas do not 
necessarily differ in chemical composition from other 
solid lavas. Again, the great craters, and apparently 
during the period when they were approaching extinc- 
tion, have emitted materials — tufa, scoriae, ashes— 
which are more distinctly representative of the ejections 
of tufa cones. 

The lateral or "tufa cones," in the earlier period of 
their activity, have also produced lavas, and built up 
their foundations with compact and solid materials, re^ 
sembling the sound lavas emitted by the great craters. 
The material generally put forth, however, is of a dif- 
ferent character, whose mass is made up of fragments 
of altered lava, in which are found enfolded lumps of 
less altered lava, which are easily distinguished from the 
brilliant red and yellow, or brown colors of the mass by 
their dark or blueish gray, which is the color of the 
normal basaltic lavas. This material in mass is known 
under the name of "tuff," or "tufa." 

Dana defines tufa "as a rock not very hard, made from 
comminuted volcanic rock, more or less altered by the 
action of steam and vapors." He continues "the tufa 
made from those igneous rocks that contain iron-bearing 
minerals, such as basalt, is usually yellowish brown or 
red in color. ' Lyell defines tufa as "composed of small 
angular fragments of scoriae, and the dust of the same, 
produced by volcanic explosions." Leonhard also speaks 
of tufa and says "volcanoes produce, in addition to the 
solid lavas formed from the flowing lava streams, j)eculiar 
masses of ejected materials which are found in less or 
greater proportions around the borders an<l slopes of 



26 



craters. These masses are composed, of volcanic ashes, 
saud, hipilli, bombs and lava blocks." 

Tufas, then are masses composed of fragments of the 
solid lavas of a given crater or volcanic region that have 
been severed and ejected by explosive eruptions, and 
wliich underwent a change of composition under the 
jiction of steam and acid vapors. Consequently there are 
several kinds of tufas, each depending upon the character 
of the solid lava, and as our lavas are strictly basalts, 
we have to deal exclusively with ha.saltir tufas. 

From the agricultural standpoint, this matter of lavas, 
and of their origin and nature, is of the very greatest 
moment, and underlies any understanding of the soils 
derived from them. Areas upon certain of our planta- 
tions; are formed from solid, flowing hivas; whilst 
the soils in some wliole districts are the product 
of weather(Ml tufas, and are to be distinguislied from 
others as tufa soils. We therefore have had to con- 
sider the solid lavas, and more especially the tufas, mor<- 
minutely than the geologists have usually done, and par 
ticularly their relative chemical compositions. If Mie 
tufas, which are made up of fragments of solid lava^<, 
in their course of ejection and later consolidation, have 
been acted upon by steam, oi- (^specially by acid vapors, 
a radical difference in their clKMuical (•om])osition would 
follow; and tliis w<nihl be permanent in its r(»sults, lead- 
ing to the ])roduction of soils pcniuuKMitly dilTei'cnt in 
(liaracter from soils den-ived from the solid, normal lavas. 
In ord(^r to carry out the examination of the lavas from 
which the several kinds of soils have been derived, the 
writer, in the course of visits to the districts of tlie four 
islands, gave great care to the selection of tyi>ical s])eci- 
mens of lavas in the iuniiediate localitv where samples 



27 



of soil were taken. Many of tlie specimens of solid lavas, 
and of tufas, have been examined, and in the following 
tables are found strictly typical representatives of the 
two classes of rocks. The analyses, by reason of stress 
of work, are only partial, and are confined to observing 
the behaviour of the elements that would indicate the 
change of chemical composition on a grand scale in the 
passing over of the fragments, from solid lava masses, 
into tufa under the action of acid vapors. The first tables 
are given to solid lavas, dividing these into non-hi/droiis 
and hjidrous lavas, and the last table to tnf(ii<. 

NON HYDROUS SOLID LAVAS. 



Moisture. 


Combined c, o 
Water. ''^ '^'^ 


FeO 


Fez O3 


AI2 O3 


Ca 


Per cent. 

0.73 
0.04 
0.25 
0.49 
0.63 
0.36 


Per cent. 

0.28 
0.09 
31 

0.00 
08 
07 


Per cent. 

48.18 
52.51 
48.84 
52.89 
47.85 
44.45 


Per cent. 

8.40 
9.94 
9.69 
6.51 
7.66 
8.39 


Per cent. 

4.42 
3.33 
2.42 
3.64 
4.20 
6.23 


Per cent 
18.02 

23.71 
23.17 

17.80 
28.62 
20.32 


s 
ID 


Means 0.41 


13 


49.12 


8.43 4.04 


21.94 


9.24 



HYDROUS SOLID LAVAS. 



Moisture. 


Combined 
Water. 


Si02 


Fe 


FezOs 


AI2O3 


Ca 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent 


Per cent. 




0.33 


0.90 


42.19 


6.71 


7.94 


12 07 




1.95 


1.83 


47.42 


8.33 


4.18 


14.30 


s 


1.05 


2.53 


44.85 


9.91 


4.17 


20.44 


V 


0.81 


1.00 


46.29 


8.87 


3.82 


14,30 




0.10 


4.27 


40.95 


11.17 


5.73 


19.74 




0.70 


1.34 


46.50 


7.00 


6.87 


21.51 




Means 0.82 


1.96 


44.66 


8.66 


5.62 


17.60 


8.23 



28 



TUFAS. 



Moisture. 


Combined 
Water. 


SiOz 


FeO 


Fe2 O3 


AI2 O3 


Ca 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Pel cent. 


Per cent. 




3.97 


12.98 


15.92 


0.09 


49.02 


13.42 




7.62 


9.86 


25.70 


1.23 


25.07 


26.26 




10.63 


11.15 


23.72 


1.84 


16.34 


32.56 


8 


9.52 


11.16 


29.46 


2.93 


19.17 


22.53 


7.25 


11.23 


31.69 


2 67 


20.26 


20.66 


9.44 


9.27 


39 42 


0.79 


15.78 


20.18 




7.16 


11.37 


25 42 


1.66 


26.77 


20.23 




6.22 


14.93 


21.52 


2.37 


33.90 


32.87 




Means 7.72 


11.49 


26.60 


1.69 


25.79 


23.58 


1.41 



The analyses given could be added to; but we have con- 
fined ourselves to analyses made by our laboratory, the 
specimens analyzed having been collected hj the writer 
as typical. 

The analyses recorded are also selected in order to con^ 
vey a view of the extremes of variation, which in the 
tufas are very great. Before discussing these variations 
we shall bring the general results together in a table of 
averages. 



Lavas. 


Moisture. 


Combined 
Water. 


Si02 


Fe 


Fe2 O3 


Ah O3 


CaO 


Non— Hydrous . . . 

Hvdrous 

Tufas 


Per cent. 

0.41 
0.82 
7.72 


Per cent. 

0.13 

1.96 

11.49 


Per 
cent. 

49.12 

44.66 
26.60 


Per 
cent. 

8.43 
8.66 
1.69 


Per 
cent 

4.04 

5.62 

25.79 


Per 
cent. 

21.94 
17.06 
23.58 


Per 
cent 

9.24 
8.23 
1.41 



As distinguished from the less crystalline, compact 
non-hydrous lavas, the hydrous lavas not infreciuently 
show separations from the lava mass of silica, also of 
lime, which occupy the larger vesicles, and indicate that 
an initial disintegration of the solid lavas has taken 
place. 



29 



The analyses given of tufas convey to us an idea of the 
different degrees of action of the steam and acid vapors 
to which the blocks and fragments of solid lava were 
subjected in passing over into the tufa mass. In one 
specimen nearly 40% of silica is still found, and in an> 
other the silica is reduced to merely 15%. These very 
significant variations in the silica and other elements 
we shall recur to in more detail under the heading of 
Chemical Action on Lavas After Emission. 

Other effects, showing how intense the chemical action 
has been at the times of ejection of tufa lava materials, 
are seen in the almost complete oxydatiou of the ferrous 
iron, and in the removal of the lime; results that are 
most instructive in the study of rock decomposition un- 
der the action of various causes. 

The main conclusion that is drawn for us by the 
analyses, and which is set forth briefly in the table of 
averages, may be expressed thus: Amongst Haicaiian 
lavas are those which have been discharged from craters^ 
-flowing and cooling into rocks having the composition of 
normal basalts. Others, origin all if of the same composition, 
have undergone such alteration that they noio compose rock 
masses having a radically different chemical composition and 
color appearance. This alteration took place at the time of 
ejection, and under the action of chemical causes, and previous 
to the later action of secondary causes of rock disintegration, 
such as "'Weathering,^- which has apparently been the only 
agent of disintegration of certain of the normal lavas. 

The effects of these primary chemical causes of disin- 
tegration which are exhibited in the appearance of the 
tufa masses, and marked by every variation of colors be 
tween the most vivid reds and yellows, and upon which 
the marks of fire are still as clear as upon bricks fresh 



30 



from tlic kiln, will be fnrtlier coiisidonMl at a later time, 
aud ill their relation 1<» the soils derived from the tufas. 
At present we shall consider other chemical causes that 
may have operated in determiniuj>- the character of soils. 

CiiEMic^u. Action on Lavas after Emission. — In previous 
paragraphs we have considered the operation of steam 
and acid vapors that is going on at this time u])on the 
lavas over large areas on the floor of the active crater at 
Kilauea, and over the areas surrounding the crater. We 
have shown that the solid lavas are undergoing rapid 
disintegration under the chemical agents that are operat- 
ing, and are being resolved into the decomposition pro« 
ducts that have been set forth. The present purpose is to 
try to find out if these chemical causes, that are operating 
today at Kilauea, have operated in other localities, and 
over extensive areas, during previous periods of time. 
In the general review of the to])ography of the island, 
we spoke of the great craters, and of the general distri- 
bution of tufa cones, as seen from the Waimea plains. 
We must noAV come down, and with greater precision and 
detail, to the examination of the districts where, to-day, 
we are growing cane, and from which we have analyzed 
abundant samples of soil for our guidance in fertilization. 

In the first place, it was necessary to note whether 
great volcanic action has transpired during previous 
periods of time in the localities that are under considera- 
tion, as indicated by remains of extinct tufa cones, or 
whether all the lavas that have formed the soils in those 
localities have flowed from the great craters that are 
many miles away? Commencing in the district of Kan, 
on the final slopes of Manna Loa, around and between 
Honuapo and Pahala, several fine specimens of tufa cones 
are located. In the immediate neighborhood of these 



31 



cones the rock masses are marked by the strougest signs* 
of alteration, and vast layers and deposits of red, yellow, 
and whitish earths are found. Leaving Kau, and pass^ 
ing over by way of the Kilauea crater and down into the 
district of Hilo, on the other side of Manna Loa, we 
come upon further centers of past volcanic action, and at 
levels close by, or up to 1,000 feet above the sea. One 
crater on the Kau side was noted where the bottom had 
dropped and let one-half of the cone down into the sea, 
thus revealing the grand throat of the crater, and the 
lurid colors of its interior, w^hich varied from white, to 
yellow, to red, to black. At Hilo there is the cluster of 
cones known locally as the "Halai Hills," three in num- 
ber, and of moderate dimensions. Cane is now being 
planted at their feet. Above Wainaku are several small 
cones, and a series of profound caves, to which the 
writer's attention was called by Mr. John Scott. At 
Onomea, which has been a center of volcanic action of 
the most violent order, as shown by the great gulchea 
and the irregular surfaces of the land, there is a further 
cluster of tufa cones that form a marked feature of the 
district. As we must return after this cursory descrip^ 
tion to discuss the special marks and characteristics of 
each of certain centers of past volcanic activity, we shall, 
for the present, merely state that in the course of repeated 
rides between the town of Hilo and the grand gulch of 
Waipao, near Kukuihaele, the writer noted thirty-nine 
extinct craters, varying in size from areas of an acre, to 
enclosed basins containing several acres. During this 
ride of some sixty miles, more than fifty gulches were 
crossed, some of them of the first class in depth and 
grandeur. The thirty-nine craters noted are all upon 
levels at which cane is being planted, the basins of 



32 



some of tliom actually bearing cane, and otlici- jLivowths. 
Alono the same coast of Hawaii, in the district of Ko- 
hala, are also fonnd several lateral cones. It is thus seen 
that throuji'hoiit the districts reaching- from Ililo to Ko- 
liala there are areas that are covered by the centers and 
indications of past volcanic action, the evidences and 
results of wliich we liave now to consider more minutely. 
We have, in a case of specimens before us, small blocks 
of partially decomposed lava that were taken by the 
writer from lavas in place which form the irrej>ular walls 
of several jiulches. One collection of these blocks waa 
from a oiildi running through the sugar plantation abctve 
AVainaku; a second from Kawainui gulch near Onomea; 
and a third collection from a gulch below Kukaiau. In 
each case, these blocks were obtained by removing several 
feet of the front of the walls, and getting into small in 
terior caves which were formed and left by past volcanic- 
movements. Some of these caves are amply large to move 
freely in, and they consist usually of an arched roof over 
a more or less level floor. The floors of the caves from 
which the three collections of partially decomposed lava 
were taken, Avere covered with a (h'posit, almost white 
in color, and from one-eighth to one-fourth of an inch in 
thickness. The greatest care was taken to ascertain that 
this white material was brought up from the lava ui)on 
which it lies, and not drained from the lava of the arch 
above by the action of water. Examination of tlie lava 
under the deposit indicated that the material had been 
brought up by ascending steam. Bh)cks or pieces of the 
lava forming the floor of tlie caves were taken out, packed 
Avith cai(% and brought to our laboratory, and are pre- 
served, Avith Ihe deposit of Avliite material fresh and 
undisturbed upon them. The freshness of the deposit is 



33 



remarkable; especially upon the specimens taken from 
the cave in the gulch above Wainaku. In the laboratory, 
this deposit is found to consist, in the first place, in more 
than one-half, of silica, considerable alumina, less iron, 
and small quantities of lime and sulphuric acid, no car- 
bonic acid being present. An exact quantitative state- 
ment is unreliable, due to the crumbly state of the lava, 
from which the dex)osit cannot be removed without in- 
cluding portions of the lava. 

In the search for such caves as we have described, and 
for deposits of materials that were possibly to be found 
in them, the writer was endeavoring to locate centers of 
past volcanic activity where chemical action upon emit- 
ted lavas may appear to have produced results corres- 
ponding to the effects observed to-day at Kilauea, where 
the action of acid vapors is seen to be resolving the lavas 
into the products described in previous paragraphs. The 
conditions of those caves that we have examined, which 
belong to a period of volcanic activity that prevailed in- 
definite ages ago, correspond to some of the conditions 
of location and environment marking the places of the 
present chemical action near the volcano, and the 
deposits upon the specimens of lava taken from those an- 
cient caves bear, in appearance, a most palpable re- 
semblance to siliceous deposits upon the blocks of decom- 
posing lava that we took fresh from a center of extreme 
chemical action on the borders of the Kilauea crater a 
year ago, the analysis of which gave 70.8% of silica; 
16.1% of iron; 7.3% of alumina; 4.8% of lime, and 
2.2% of sulphuric acid. 

In addition to the cave deposits, there are other pro- 
ducts of lava-disintegration, under the action of chemical 
causes, which appear to correspond to materials into 

3 



34 



^vhicli the lavas are being resolved at Kilauea, the com> 
position of the latter we have already given. These are 
layers and vast pockets of red and yellow earths, more or 
less consolidated, and also of earths whose colors vary 
from a dirty or yellowish white into actual blue. Al- 
though the number of caves does not exceed four in which 
we have been able to identify the evidences of chemical 
action upon the lavas with a sufficient measure of reli- 
ability, the distribution of the other products of lava- 
decomposition by chemical agents is on a grand scale. 
We have examined and identified the several kinds of 
colored earths in all the gulches around Hilo and Papai- 
kou. Further in the gulches named Kahalii, Kawainui, 
Kulaimanu, Kapaheehee, Kolekole, Hakalau, Maulua, 
Kapehu, Laupahoehoe, Kawali, Ookala, Kukaiau, Puu^ 
ohihaihai, Honokaa, Kukuihaele, and in the gulches and 
cuttings in the district of Kohala. The recent cuttings 
made in the building of roads in the districts of Hama^ 
kua and Kohala, likewise of Hilo, have furnished ample 
opportunity of noting the distribution of the earthy 
decomposition products under discussion. These earthy 
products are found in alternating red and yellow layers, 
of thicknesses varying from three inches to more than one 
foot. The layers repeat themselves, as shown by the 
cuttings, one series being found only two to six feet be- 
low the ground surface, whilst other layers are lying 
even to twenty feet below the surface, and probably 
still deeper, which is indicated by their position in the 
bluff formations overlooking the sea in the Hamakua 
district. In addition to being seen in irregular layers, 
the red, yellow, and whitish substances exist in vast 
deposits or pockets, whose masses may be expressed in 
millions of tons. These substances however, are not 



35 



found uniformly throughout all the lava formations. In 
what appear to have been centers of great volcanic and 
chemical action the formations have been largely re- 
solved into these separate substances. But these centers 
are more or less acutely defined. They cease suddenly, 
and we come upon areas of formations that are under^ 
going gradual disintegration, the dissolved materials be^ 
ing borne away in rain waters into the sea as they are 
released. So that there are areas where the lavas and 
formations appear to have undergone violent disintegra^ 
tion, and other vast areas where the evidences of such 
violent action are almost totally absent. 

Further generalizing upon the extent of the areas 
where it is indicated that modes of violent chemical dis- 
integration have operated, and upon the appearances of 
the several decomposition-products, will not add to our 
knowledge. We must ascertain the chemical composi- 
tion of these disintegration products, and then bring 
them into comparison with other similar products, the 
agents and modes of whose production we have identified. 

At the time of the field examination of those products 
of ditsintegration, in the districts of the four islands, 
we took typical samples of the several kinds of earths. 
Some eighty samples, in all, were taken. On account of 
stress of work, this number was gone over again by the 
writer, and reduced to forty samples, these representing 
localities and centers, bearing the marks of the most 
evident volcanic and chemical action, upon the four isl- 
ands. The analyses, which are found in the followina 
tables, are made upon the materials as they were found 
in place. The elements included are those whose varia- 
tion in the several kinds of earths bears most closely up« 
on the immediate question. The estimation of the sul- 



26 



pliuric acid in each sample is indispensable on account of 
the part which it is believed to have played in the pro^ 
cesses of rock-disintejiTation under discussion. The rel- 
ative significance of the presence of sulphuric and car- 
bonic acids will be considered in a later paragraph. 

In the first table we give the analyses of the decom- 
position-products found in localities on Hawaii, after 
which corresponding evidences of the same character of 
rock-disintegration by chemical action that has transpired 
upon the other islands will be briefly given. 



LAVA DISINTEGRATION-PEODUCTS, ISLAND OF HAWAII. 



Locality ■ 



Hilo 

Hilo 

Hilo 

Honomu 

Paauilo 

Ookala 

Ookala 

Lauijahoehoe. 
Lanpaboeboe. 
Laupaboeboe. 
Hamakua . . . . 

Halawa 

Kobala 

Kobala 







Com- 








1 


Color. 


Mois- 


bined 


SiOa 


FeO 


Fe, 0, 


AU O3 Ca 0| 




ture. 


water 










Per 




Per 


Per 


Per 


Per 


Per 


Per 




cent. 


cent. 


cent. 


cent 


cent. 


cent 


cent. 


Brown 


86.82 


11.70 


11.53 


4.27 


10.45 


19.42 


1.25 


Red 


19.82 


9.64 


21.80 


0.89 


23.04 


22.841 0.49 


Yellow . . . 


9.45 


15.56 


17.66 


3.64 


20.64 


80.99 0.60 


Red 


17.51 


4.74 


25.10 


0.49 


31.12 


18.95 0.40 


Red 


28.52 


5.84 


16.27 


0.98 


25.28 


21.42! 47 


Red 


16.69 


5 85 


26.17 


0.70 


27 50 


21.9110.22 


Yellow . . . 


4.15 


27.85 


2.26 


0.77 


2.40 


61.12| 30 


Li^bt gray 


30.08 


10.80 


27.88 


0.61 


1.86 


28.001 0.62 


Red 


15.25 


4.51 


26.60 


0.84 


36.00 


15.14! 0.49 


Wbitisb . . 


2.47 


30.52 2.44 


1.50 


1.64 


59.841 0.50 


Grav 


7.66 


5.79 37,40 


5.74 


12.24 


18.801 0.30 


Wbitisb 


18.26 


11.74! 34.04 


1.26 


4.40 


84.68 0.25 


Wbitisb . . 


5.16 


25.881 10.96 


0.77 


7.36 


48.14| 0.45 


Reddisb . . 


9.54 


1.03 


38.37 


1.42 


16.00 


25.92 


1 2.19' 



SOa 



Per 
cent. 

0.67 

0.80 

0.38 

trace 

0.07 

trace 

0.50 

uoue 

0.40 

0.88 

0.48 

0.14 

0.35 

1.50 



CO2 



Per 
cent. 

none 
0.10 
0.25 
none 
none 
none 
none 
0.10 
0.25 
0.20 
none 
none 
none 
none 



These analyses were made precisely the same as those 
of the lavas, and thus the data express the amount of 
the elements in the total substance. 

As the Island of Hawaii, excepting probably the Ko- 
hala division, is the most recent in the group of islands, 
and its products the freshest, we shall call attention to 
the table of data before proceeding further. Without 
noteworthy exceptions, it is seen that Avhere the "combin- 
ed water" is high, the proportion of alumina is also high, 



37 



and in instances enormous! The earths having these high 
contents of alumina and combined water are a dirty 
white, gray, or yellow in color. When glowed, for the 
removal of the combined water, the color may remain 
yellow, or becomes pink, or goes over instantly into a 
vivid red, which changes are determined by the propor^ 
tion of iron and the form in which it is present. The yel- 
low hydrate of iron at once becomes red on glowing, bnt 
the silicate changes slowly, and very little. 

Very striking is the variation in the contents of silica, 
and of iron, in the substances. In examples we find the 
silica as low as 2%, and the iron as high as 37%; yet im 
stances are found where the silica and iron are both 
reduced to almost nothing, and the alumina forming ah 
most the total of the earth. It has also to be specially 
understood and kept in mind that these substances which 
are so totally different in their composition, are found in 
the closest contiguity to each other. The Ookala "red" 
and "yellow," although each represents thousands of tons 
of material, are lying near to each other, yet separated 
by acute lines of division. It is also, and even more 
strikingly, the case with the "red" and whitish earths 
taken in the locality of Laupahoehoe. The writer, in 
some cases, has taken samples of "bright red," and of 
"whitish yellow/' from heaps of these earths not more 
than three feet apart. This close contiguity of earths 
of such totally different chemical compositions indicates 
most clearly that a cause other than "weathering" has 
operated in the rock-disintegration. 

Island of Maui. — This island is said to be older than 
Hawaii. To the writer, the indications of age resemble 
those of the Kohala division of Hawaii, 

Three of the analvses are of earths from the region of 



38 



greatest volcanic activity, folloAviiig the line of lateral 
cones that descend the slopes of the grand crater of Hale- 
akala to the sea. The writer located some six of these 
lateral or tufa cones. Two more are of products separate 
ing out in the disintegration of the lavas of West ]\[aui, 
which was separated formerly from East Maui by a 
channel, in whose place now lies the isthmus that tiea 
the two great crater mountains together. 

The borders of West Maui are skirted in localities by 
coral formations, which formations underlie some of the 
later lava flows. It is also indicated, as upon the Island 
of Oahu, that later volcanic activities have disturbed the 
underlying coral, or limestone, whereupon the escape of 
steam and vapors from below took place, bringing up vast 
quantities of carbonate of lime, of silica, with small 
amounts of iron and alumina. The deposits of these 
materials are a feature of the mountain slopes of West 
Maui running down to the bay of Lahaina, and the writei* 
has frequently been asked by people passing the island 
on steamers "what the deposits are?" The districts be- 
ing small, the number of analyses has been reduced to a 
minimum; yet numerous samples of earths were taken 
corresponding to these analyzed. 

LAVA DISINTEGRATION-PEODUCTS, ISLAND OF MAUI. 



Locality. 


Color. 


Paia . . 

Makawao . . 
Makawao . . 
Olowalu . . . 
Lahaina 


red 

red 

yellow 

white 

white 1 



Mois- 
ture. 



I Com- 1 
billed' 
water 

etc. 



Si O2 Fe O 



Fe^Oa AI2O3 Ca O S O3 C O, 



Per Per Per Per Per 1 Per Per Fer 
cent. cent, cent cent. cent. cent. cent, cent 

10.S5i 18.83 29.90 0.22 23.10 26 00 0.31 

12.601 13.39 5.66 3.92 58.00 .5.06! 0.61 

30.02.32.63 7.66 O.OO] 1.50 29.06 1 0.30 

3.44 13.85 10 80 trace trace 3.06 37.36 

1.66 11.51 12.18 O.8OI 4.32 5.28| 40.24 



Per 
cent. 

0.31 none 
0.03 none 
0.02 none 
0.05 32.66 
0.10 30.90 



39 



The "red" and "yellow" earths from Makawao were 
taken by the writer from places only three yards apart; 
but they represent bulks of thousands of tons. The crater 
region of Makawao abounds with these different kinds 
of earths, in which the guava tree is flourishing; and this 
tree is preparing the earths for growths of a more delicate 
nature. 

The white deposits in the districts of Olow^alu and La^ 
haina are not to be regarded as lava disintegration-pro^ 
ducts. Their prevalence, however, indicates to what an 
extent the areas of lava flows have been marked, during 
a past period, by escaping steam and vapors emanating 
from the depths below\ 

Island of Oahu. — This island being the chief island of 
residence, its volcanoes are better known than others. 
Dana says the island is derived from the operations of 
two craters of the "first class." We are able, however, 
to locate not less than twenty lateral or tufa cones, cer- 
tain of Avhich are of notable dimensions. Better than 
upon even the younger islands can be observed the marks 
and results of escaping steam and vapors upon the lavas 
after emission from the craters. The slopes of Diamond 
Head and of Punchbowl are white with deposits of silica 
and carbonate of lime, and the fractures of the lava 
masses, and large fissures, are filled up with these 
materials that have been left behind by the escaping 
vapors. 

As on West Maui, the presence of more or less of car- 
bonate of lime in the deposits is due to limestone or coral 
formations upon which the latest eruptions overflowed. 
Even the lavas of these districts contain nearly 15% of 
lime, indicating that the limestone below was melted and 
mixed up in the up-coming magma, within which it is 



40 



now seen in white clusters of beautifully ciystallized 
carbonate Avitli some silica. 

The following analyses are of disintegration-products 
of lavas from localitites where the coral has not ent(»red 
into their composition. 



DECOMPOSITION-PRODUCTS OF LAVA, ISLAND OF OAHU. 



Locality, 



Color, 



Tantalus reddish . 

Tantalus ... . ibrown . . 
Tantalus .... brown .. 
Kokoloea . . . brownish 
Kokoloea . . . dark .... 

Ewa .. white . . . 

Ewa whitish . . 

Waialua i reddish.. 

Heeia crimson . 



Mois- 


Com- 
bined 


Si02 


FeO 


FezOa 


AI2O3 


t 
CaO SO3 




water 




Pe- 


Per 




Per Pe 


Per 


Per 


Per 


Per 


cent. 


cent. 


cent. 


cent. 


cent. 


cent 


cent cent 


15.10 


10.74 


29.14 


1.60 


15.20 


26.10 


0.40; 0.10 


1.27 


30.00 


6.70 


0.44 


8.45 


52.10 


0.43 0.20 


fi.37 


21.04 


12.84 


1.99 


13.29 


43.90 


0.53 0.35 


12.11 


9 57 


33.96 


0.75 


11.14 


30.14 


0.40 0.20 


1.85 


1089 


7.52 


1.40 


70.40 


6.30 


0.62 0.56 


1.60 


4.78 


87.89 


0.69 


1.85 


2..33 


0.20' 0.07 


3.84 


9.80 


55.96 


0.00 


9.92 


19.48 


0.77 0.15 


7.91 


1.15 


29.29 


1.80 


26.06 


22.07 


1.88; 1.53 


5.21 


6.84 


83.70 


2.56 


18.66 


23.71 


1.481 1.151 



Per 
cent. 

none 
none 
none 
none 
none 
0.46 
none 
none 
none 



These data repeat the indications set forth in the ex- 
amination of the substances from Maui and Hawaii. The 
Kokoloea substances were taken from places separated 
only a few yards from each other, yet the one is largely 
an alumina compound, whilst the other contains over 
70% of iron oxide, of which Ave shall speak later. Special- 
ly noteworthy are the high amounts of silica found in the 
Ewa products that were taken by the writer from two 
deposits that are still in a. very fresh condition. The 
large amounts of sulphuric acid found in certniii of th(* 
products furnish a clear indication that the steam vapors 
that acted in the disintegration of the lavas were highly 
sulphurous. 

IsL.sjs^D OF Kauat. — Tlio geologists appear to agree in 
considering Kauai the oldest island in the group. We 
have reason to consider, however, that whilst Kaiiiii mav 



41 



have appeared above tlie ocean before any of the islands, 
volcanic activity continued upon it after the other islands 
came into existence. But the greater age of the forma- 
tions and lavas is indicated by given disintegration-pro^ 
ducts notwithstanding. 

Geologists cannot locate with certainty the location of 
the primary craters which laid the foundations, and built 
up the main part of the structure of the island. The 
centers of lateral crater action, however, are almost more 
definitely marked than upon the younger islands. At the 
north end of the island in the district of Kilauea, the 
lavas, and the soils derived from them, indicate a j)ast 
period of extreme lateral activity. Crater hill, one part 
of which appears to have dropped down below the sea, 
leaving a bluff wall which had been the interior of the 
throat of the crater, is, with other tufa cones, an abiding 
evidence of past volcanic action. In the district of Kealia 
the grand gulches and tufa cones repeat the same state^ 
ment. The Kilohana crater gave forth much of the 
material that has formed the soils in the district of Liliue, 
although all Lihue soils do not appear to have been deriv- 
ed from one source. From Lihue we pass on to Koloa, 
where we come upon a region of past volcanic activity 
that is almost without a parallel. Within an area of a 
few thousand acres are seen what have been nine, and 
possibly eleven, crater cones; one line of which — the 
"Button craters" — corresponds to the Diamond Head 
series on Oahu, and to the Makawao chain of cones on 
Maui. 

Analyses have been made of only seven products from 
Kauai; but these are so extremely distinctive in character 
that further analyses could hardly add to the indicationa 
that they are calculated to convev. 



42 



DECOMPOSITION-PRODUCTS OF LAVA, ISLAND OF KAUAL 



Locality. 



Color, 



Mois- 
ture. 



Per 
cent. 

Koloa White. .. 4 44 

Kolo;i ; Yellow... 10.13 

Kolo.i Yellowish 24.88 

Koloa White ... 830 

Lihue Red 4.37 

Kealia Red 2.24 

Kilauea Red 1 5.34 



Com- 




bined 


SiOa 


water 




Per 


Per 


cent 


cent. 


15.55 


2 31 


10.41 


32.52 


5.87 


43.45 


12.47 


42.42 


10.23 


9.10 


10.41 


12.98 


8.90 


4.96 



FeO 



Per 
cent 

0.00 
0.94 
0.00 
0.00 
0.84 
1.92 
1.93 



Fe2 03 


AUO3 


CaO 


Per 


Per 


Per 


cent. 


cent. 


cent. 


0.85 


1 09 31.24 


11.37 


2417 


3.59 


3.84 


18.07 


0.46 


2.24 


33.76 


0.25 


63.68 


9.72 


0.66 


62.72 


8.22 


0.50 


67.06 


11.19 


0.32 



S03 C02 



Per I 
cent. I 

44.65 I 
4.65 

trace 
0.10 
0.54 

[trace 
0.59 



Per 
cent. 

none 
0.14 
none 
none 
none 
none 
none 



We did not succeed in finding distinct siliceous 
deposits on the Island of Kauai. The composition of the 
other products, however, indicate the enormous amount 
of silica that has been released by the disiutetiratiou of 
the lava, and removed elsewhere. The undecomposed, 
vesicular lavas in the region of Koloa and Lihue are 
quite remarkable for the amounts of pure silica contained 
in the vesicles, and deposited on the surfaces of the lava. 
In Koloa we have an example in process of JmoUnizatlon, 
and on a large scale. The writer has in his collection a 
specimen of one hundred pounds in weight, obtained with 
the assistance of Mr. Anton Cropp, in which is beautifully 
illustrated the mode of coming together of the alumina 
and silica, and the production of an almost theoretically 
pure kaolin, and the separation of the other elements of 
the decomposing lava. 

Upon the plain of Mahaulepu, in the Koloa district, we 
found the most extraordinary piece of evidence of pre- 
vious volcanic action, and of the mode of the subsequent 
disintegration of the lavas. Side by side, and on areas 
extending over a considerable portion of the plain, are 
found deposits of red and yellow cjirths. Tlie yellow 
eai'ih coiitjiins no less tlinn 5.82%, upon its dry Aveight, 



43 



of sulphuric acid, aud sulphate of lime is found in crys- 
talline form, aud amounts to over 9% of the earth, from 
which it is separatino- out almost chemically pure. 

In the district of Lihue, Kealia and Kilauea, and in 
what have been centers of extreme volcanic activity, the 
separation of the elements which formed the lavas has 
proceeded to more ultimate lengths. The layers of red 
earth, some of which are found in deep cuttings, and 
twenty to thirty feet below the land surface, and others 
only four feet below the surface, have consolidated into 
hard concretions of almost pure iron ore, or hematite. 
These concretions we have only succeeded in finding on 
the two older islands — Oahu and Kauai — and they, with 
the kaolinization proceeding at Koloa, indicate the con> 
tinuance of lava-disintegration, and separation of the 
products, under the agency of "simple weathering," and 
after the chemical causes, of which we are speaking, had 
ceased. It is understood that whatever may have been 
the character and extent of the primary chemical action 
upon lavas, the disintegration has been continued and 
completed by the several climatic influences that are ex- 
pressed by the term — "weathering." 

Having examined the products from each of the four 
islands which may be considered as evidence of the opera- 
tion of chemical causes in the disintegration of lavas in 
certain localities, we shall now bring these ancient pro- 
ducts into comparison with the substances that are being 
produced today at Kilauea, on the borders of the active 
crater, by the action of sulphurous steam on the lavas. 
We may here add that, in addition to the samples repre- 
sented by the analyses recorded, we have made quali- 
tative examinations of the other almost chemically pure 
samples of gypsum, siliceous, and other compounds in 



44 



order to justify any allusion to such substances that it 
did not appear necessary to examine quantitatively. In 
the following comparisons of recent and aiicieuf products 
of disint(\iiration the data give the relative amounts of 
the elements free from water and volatile matters. Thifo 
is necessary on account of the extreme variation in the 
proportions of volatile matters in the several substances, 
and in order to further compare the composition of the 
several products Avith that of the original lava, which is 
almost free from volatile bodies. 



YELLOWISH-VVHITE-OOLORED, SILICEOUS PRODUCTS. 



Age of Products. 


Si O2 


FeO 


FeaOa 


AlaOa 


Ca 


SO3 


Recent— Kilauea Cra^^er 


Per 
cent. 

88.10 


Per 
cent. 

0.90 
0.73 


Per 
cent 

4.00 


Per 
cent. 

1.51 


Per 
cent. 

trace 
0.21 


Per 
cent. 

1.33 


Ancient— Extinct Crater Regions 


93.88 


1.97 


2.49 


0.08 



GRAY-COLORED, SILICEOUS PRODUCTS. 



Age of Products. 


sio. 


FeO 

Per 
cent. 

2.23 

0.00 


Fe,0., 

Per 
cent. 

9 65 
11.49 


Al„ 0, Ca 


0., 


Recent- Kilauea Crater 

Ancient— Extinct Crater Regions 


Per 
cent 

67.69 
63.45 


Per Per 
cent cent. 

8 38 4 45 
22.57 0.89 


Per 

cent. 

2 12 
0.27 



In the following comparison, lime carbonates are ex^ 
eluded from the average of "ancient" products. As we 
have already explained, these carbonates are derived 
from lime formations underlying lava flows, and are not 
true disintegration-products of lava. 



45 



WHITE, CALCAREOUS PRODUCTS (GYPSUM). 



Age of Products. 



Recent — Kilauea Crater 

Ancient— Extinct Crater Regions 



SiO, 



Per 
cent. 



FeO 



Per 
cent. 

0.00 
0.00 



Fe.O. 



Per 
cent. 

0.70 
1.06 



AUG., 



CaO 



Per 
cent. 

trace 143.40 



Per 
cent 



SO. 



Per 
cent. 

44.73 



1,36 39.04:55.81 



It is difficult to make a comparison, of any value, be- 
tween the alum products that are being formed from the 
decomposing lava at the Kilauea crater with ancient 
deposits in which alumina predominates. The Kilauea 
alum deposits contain, in addition to iron sulphates, con^ 
siderable sulphates of magnesium and of the alkalies. 
In the ancient products these sulphates have been almost 
washed away, which has resulted in increasing the 
amounts of alumina and silica, 

GRAY, ALUMINA PRODUCTS. 



Age of Products. 


SiOa 

Per 
cent. 

0,80 

8.97 


FeO 


FezOs 


CaO 


AI2O3 


SO., and Ha 


Recent — Kilauea Crater 

Ancient — Extinct Crater Regions 


Per 
cent. 

0.00 
1.44 


Per 
cent. 

12.30 

7.80 


Per 
cent. 

0.50 
0.34 


Per 

cent. 

26 2 
45.5 


Per cent, 

45.65 
25.60 



As already remarked, these ancient alumina jjroducts 
do not admit of close comparison. They also unquestion^ 
ably owe their present composition to slow processes of 
change that followed the primary chemical action upon 
the lavas. Moreover, it must be borne in mind that 
alumina products, resembling these under discussion 
have resulted from the decomposition of rocks in older 
countries where it has not yet been shown that chemical 
causes of disintegration have played any part. 

In the following and last table we brino- into com- 



46 

pari son the red-earth products obtained fresli from the 
active crater where they are now forming, and tlie red 
earths collected from all parts of the four islands. Owing 
to the great variation in the ancient red products, which 
variation appears to relate to the variation in age, we 
give first, the composition of the recent red product from 
Kilauea. Second, the composition of an ancient red 
earth that corresponds most closely with the recent pro- 
duct. Third, the ancient red product that contains the 
least amount of iron oxide. Fourth, the ancient red pro- 
duct that contains the largest amount of iron oxide. 
Lastly the mean composition of all the red earths. This 
division is made in order that the variation in the compo- 
sition of these red earths shall be understood, and for 
the further reason, that these earths are a factor of im- 
portance in the composition of some soils. 

EED, IRON PRODUCTS. 



Age and State of Products. 



Recent- -Kilauea Crater Product 

Ancient — Corresponding Product , 

Ancient Minimum Iron oxide content . 
Ancient— Maximum Iron oxide content 
Ancient— Mean of Red Products 



SiO„ 



Per 
cent. 



Fe.Os AloO., 



Per Per 
cent. cent. 



CaO 



Per 
cent, 



32.50 44 5018.10 0.20 
33.15 44 8618.87 60 
42 9019.48 28.98 
7.65 83 68 6.84 
28.7147.32 21.80 



SO, 



Per 
cent. 

1.57 

0.50 

2.45 1.68 

0.82 0.04 

0.90] 0.60 



The examination of the products of lava-decomposition 
of an earlier period, and the comj)arison of those with the 
products of disintegration that are being formed, at the 
present time, in the region of the active crater at Kilauea, 
have led to very significant results. The location of the 
ancient products in what have been centers of past, ex- 
treme volcanic activity; the marked resemblance of these 
products, in appearance and chemical composition, to the 
substances now in the act of formation from disintegrate 



47 



ing lavas, by visible processes, — all these phenomena in- 
dicate that the "recent" and the "ancient" products, 
under discussion, have had a similar origin. Moreover, 
these phenomena indicate that in the disintegration of 
the older lavas, chemical causes have exercised a strong 
action, over extensive areas, and j)revious to the later 
action of "simple weathering," the results of which will 
be found in the present character of the soils derived 
from them. 

LATERITES: THEIE OCCUREENCE AND ORIGIN. 

In the previous paragraphs we have endeavored to 
compare the products of lava-disintegration of a i)ast 
period with the substances into which the same kinds of 
lavas are being resolved to-day, but we have not, so far, 
attempted to definitely designate those products. 

It is evident, however, that in the highly siliceous, 
light-yellow colored, products we have substances that 
will ultimately consolidate into siliceous sand-stones, ex- 
amples of which are already found in a very developed 
crystalline state. Further the calcareous products have, 
and are still resolving themselves into definite deposits 
of almost pure gypsum and carbonate of lime; whilst the 
alumina is separating as masses having a remarkable 
degree of purity, exceeding that of the hauxltes of France 
and Ireland. Each of these products has a definite char^ 
acter, and they all differ radically from the "red earths;" 
which, from their appearance, physical character, and 
chemical composition may come under the designation of 
laterites. 

Sir Charles Lyell describes laterite as a "red or brick- 
like rock, composed of silicate of alumina and oxide of 



48 



iron;" wliicli description exactly agrees with the cheiuical 
composition of tlie red product that we have found to be 
forming, at the present time, near the active crater, and 
of the red earths collected from centers of past volcanic 
activity. 

Concerning the occurrence and geographic distribu- 
tion of the laterites, Lyell says further, "The red layers, 
called 'ochre beds,' dividing the lavas of the Giants Cause- 
way (England) and the Inner Hebrides, appear to be 
analogous to the laterites of India, Avhich were found by 
Delesse to be basalt (trap) impregnated with red oxide of 
iron, and in part reduced to kaolin." Blandford in his 
"Geology of India," speaks of "high level laterite as non- 
detrital, or iron clay;" which Posewitz says bears a closer 
resemblance to the laterites examined by him in Banga 
than do those which occur in given regions in Africa, 
where they were examined by Peschuel-Losche, and are 
described by Sachsse in his "Lehrbuch der Agricultur- 
chemie." Wohltmann speaks of a laterite formation 
from volcanic, basalt rocks in Liberia. Credner treats of 
the laterites of South America, and compares these with 
the laterites of India. These substances, which are better 
knoAvn as "ochres," are found distributed over most sec- 
tions of our globe, and independently of the present 
climatic conditions; although, at this place, it must be 
borne in mind that countries which are distinguished to- 
day by temperate^ climates, during a previous period 
exhibited the conditions of tropic lands. In the British 
Islands, over Europe, down to the Mediterranean, the 
"ochres" are found, and utilized in the arts and manu- 
factures. Over North America vast deposits of "red 
ochres" are widely known, and which, a manufacturer 
of mineral paints in a city in the United States says. 



49 



^'are the same thing as the red ochres sent to us from the 
Hawaiian Islands, for which we have no use, as we have 
too much near home." 

At present, we are not able to judge to what extent it 
may ultimately be found the rule, but the occurrence of 
the laterites, has been largely found in connection with 
igneous rocks. Lyell not only says that the "red ochres" 
in England "divide the lavas;" but continues "we feel 
sure that the rock of Staff a, and that of the Giants Cause- 
way (England), called basalt, is volcanic, because it 
agrees in chemical composition with streams of lava 
known to have flowed from craters."- Lyell says further 
"these basaltic and other igneous rocks are associated 
with beds of tufa in various parts of the British Isles;" 
and "the absence of cones and craters in England may 
be due to the eruptions having been submarine." In 
Madeira and the Canary Islands, Lyell again says the 
lava flows are divided by red layers of laterite. Blanford 
says the "high-level" laterites of Central and Western 
India are found lying upon trap rocks (basalt), that are of 
igneous origin. In this matter, however, our knowledge 
is not exact and universal enough to speak emphatically 
on a relation of the laterites to rocks of volcanic origin. 
Moreover, it appears from the observations of other in- 
vestigators that laterites occur where it does not yet 
appear that igneous rocks are found. 

Bearing upon the question of the orU/lii of the laterites, 
Lyell says "the red bands or layers of laterite are prob- 
ably ancient soils formed by the decomposition of the 
surfaces of lava currents. These red soils may have been 
colored red in the atmosphere, or burnt into red brick 
by the overflowing of heated lavas." Posewitz considers 
the formation of laterites is due to the superficial weath- 



50 



^ring of rocks and soils. Woliltmaim says "the mode by 
which the laterites have been formed is not at all under- 
stood. Some have erroneously taken these products to 
be a result of the action of sea water on rocks, or 
sedimentary deposits from sweet water; whilst others 
have as erroneously considered them in some ^v£iy pos- 
sibly connected with volcanic movements." Again he 
says "it must be regarded as a geological feature of latO'- 
rite, that it has only been formed where the processes 
of weathering and leaching have gone on for thousands 
of years. The expiration of numberless thousands of 
years of the action of weathering upon the materials of 
the earths' crust Avas an absolute necessity in the forma- 
tion of the laterites." 

Concerning the origin of the red ochres or laterites of 
the Hawaiian Islands we do not need to go into a further 
lengthy discussion. The minute description of the disin- 
tegration of lavas in the region of the active crater at 
Kilauea, that is proceeding at this time, whereby the 
solid lava is being resolved, by the action of sulphurous 
steam, into the several products of decomposition, of 
which a red earth, or laterite, is a prominent one, does 
not need to be repeated. Also our account of the distri- 
bution of centers of past volcanic action over large areas, 
and the comparison of the "ancient" products of lava 
disintegration with the "recent" products that can be 
seen and obtained to-day — all these things place before 
us indications and proofs, of the most undoubted charac- 
ter, that the formation of laterites upon the Hawaiian 
Islands has been, and is still being, due to the intense 
action of acid vapors upon lavas, whereby these are being 
resolved into the siliceous, calcareous and earthy bodies 
which we have already fully described. 



51 



In evidence of the mode by which these "red earths" 
have been formed in past periods, it was in the first 
degree important to bear in mind the agents by whose 
action the formation could have been carried on. For 
that reason, in the examination of all the products of 
lava-disintegration the sulphuric and carbonic acids were 
invariably determined. If the formation of the laterite 
had been due to the superficial action of weathering upon 
lavas and soils, the more active agent in the process must 
have been carbonic acid, derived from vegetable decay, 
and evidence of its presence and action might be deduced 
from iron carbonates found in the products. If, on the 
other hand, the rock-disintegration had been primarily 
caused by the action of acid vapors escaping from below, 
and sulphurous or sulphuric acid had been, as it is found 
to-day, the acid element in the steam and vapors, then it 
was expected that sulphuric acid might be found in the 
laterites and other disintegration-products, and especially 
in such as were found at great depths from the surface, 
and which rains had not leached. 

If we recur to the analyses of the "red earths" found 
in localities upon the four islands we see that in most 
of the products no carbonic acid, but very notable quanti- 
ties of sulphuric acid were present. To save the reader 
the necessity of looking back over the several tables we 
reproduce the sulphuric acid contents of the recent 
"red earth" (laterite) forming at the present time at Ki- 
lauea, and of certain of the laterites formed during earlier 
periods of volcanic action at centres over large areas of 
all the islands, to which are added the amounts of the 
acid also contained by certain of the kaolin products, and 
the highly siliceous separation-products, commonly call- 



52 



ed "yellow ochres," and also classed as "yellow laterites," 
as a result of confusion. 

Age and Nature of Products. Locality Sulphuric 

Recent— red laterite {now forming) . . Kilanea Crater 1.57 per cent. 

Ancieut — red laterite Heeia 1.31 " 

Ancient— red laterite Waialua 1.68 " 

Ancient -red laterite Koliala 1.08 " 

Ancient red laterite Kokoloea 0.65 " 

Ancient -red laterite Paia 0.28 " 

Ancient — red laterite Makawao 0.04 " 

Mean of all Ancient red laterites 0.61 '• 

These red laterites vary in physical state from plastic 
to solid concretionary deposits. Four of these contain 
80% of iron oxide, the alumina and silica having sejiarat- 
ed out. 

Age and Nature of Products. Locality. SuliJh'iric 

Recent — yeUow earth (now forming).Kilauea Crater 1.33 per cent. 

Ancient— yellow earth Hilo 1.29 " 

Ancient— yellow earth Laupahoehoe 57 " 

Ancient— yellow earth . . Ookala 0.71 " 

An' lent - Clay or Kaolin Koloa 5.85 " 

Ancient— Clay Wainaku 0.44 " 

Recent—Gypsum (now forming) ..Kilanea Crater.. ..44.73 " 
Ancient— ^'•ypsnm Koloa 55.81 " 

The ancient red laterites were all found to contain sul- 
phuric acid and certain of them, which have been pro^ 
tected from the leaching action of rain, contain even 
more than is found in the fresh laterites now forming 
und(»r th{^ action of the sulphurous steam at the Kilanea 
crater. 

We had persuaded ourselves that the layers of red 
laterite, lying at a depth of from two to four feet below 
the land surface, must have been deposited by the action 
of carbonic acid, derived from decaying vegetable mat- 
ter, on the iron in the soils. In most of the laterites, how- 
ever, no carbonic acid was found, jnid where the acid 



53 



was met with, it was in products where coral limestone 
was lying in the neighborhood. But the absence of car- 
bonic acid in the deposits or layers of laterite is no abso^ 
lute proof that the deposition was not caused by that 
agent. The carbonate of iron, when deposited, would 
part with the acid, and the iron would revert to the 
oxide form in which it is now found; the laterites thus 
distinctly differing in their behaviour from the concre^ 
tions known as "hardpans," one example of these con- 
cretions containing 30.26% Si O^; 5.83% Fe^ O3; 14.83% 
Alo O3; 13.61% Ca O; 8.84% CO.. In connection with 
the formation of laterites that are lying within two feet 
of the surface, we have to bear in mind that the red late^ 
rites formed, and forming near the active crater are little 
more than a foot below the surface, but are marked by 
crystals of sulphur, which attest their mode of formation. 
Nevertheless, we are still impressed that carbonic acid 
has also acted as an agent in causing the deposition of 
the laterites in given localities, although it has not yet 
been possible to obtain actual evidence to confirm the 
persuasion. 

Concerning the action of rainfall and temperature in 
the matter of laterite formation, the climatic conditions 
of the present time furnish no conclusive indications. 
The red laterites, and other disintegration products of 
the lavas, are found on the windward and leeward sides 
of the islands, and in the dry districts of Kau, Kohala, 
Paia, Waimea, and Honolulu, as well as in the wet dis- 
trict of Hilo, and the moderately moist districts of Ki- 
lauea, Koloa, Hana and South Hamakua. 

In concluding our observations upon the operation of 
chemical action in the disintegration of lavas on these 
islands, we refer once more to the extensive areas which 



54 



during earlier periods, have been the centers of vast vol- 
canic action. Lateral cones have been in action upon the 
slopes of the great craters, and over a large part of the 
surfaces of the islands. From these cones, tufa lavas 
were poured forth, saturated with steam and acid vapors, 
which caused the lava masses to undergo extreme altera^ 
tion in chemical composition at the time of ejection. 
Through fractures and fissures of the ejected lavas, steam, 
frequently charged with sulphurous acid, continued to 
escape, and these vapors carried on the alteration 
primarily caused in the tufas, and appear also to have 
operated upon areas of solid lavas, which Avere dis- 
charged without alteration, causing results in disintegra- 
tion that are not comparable with the effects of "simple 
weathering." 

The examination of the disintegration-products has not 
only furnished indications of the broad scale of areas over 
which chemical causes have acted in the decomposing of 
the lavas, they have led to the observation that the forma- 
tion of laterite has been, and is still being, due to the 
operation of the same chemical action. For whatever 
other causes or agents may have operated, it appears, 
without doubt, that the laterites of the Hawaiian Islands 
owe their origin, on a grand scale, to the action of sul- 
phurous steam in the disintegration of the lavas. 

If we extend our observations, and associate them with 
phenomena that have been noted in other countries, it is 
indicated that our conclusions may be found to allow of 
a more universal application. Authorities have been 
used to obtain a view of the prevalence of past volcanic 
action over surfaces of the globe, and we know of the 
basalt and tufa eruptions of Europe and the British Isles; 
of the lavas of India and Africa; and by the recent work 



55 



cf Eussel,- more of the magnificent areas of an earlier 
volcanic activity in the regions of Mexico and the Pacific 
Slopes. Further, we have noted the association of forma- 
tions of "laterite" with locations of igneous rocks; Lyell 
having shown the relations of laterite and basalts in Eng- 
land and Scotland; Blandford and Delesse the same con- 
ditions in India and other countries, and the "red ochres" 
of North-western America may be shown to have a rela^ 
tion to the volcanic movements of those regions. There^ 
fore the wide-spread appearance of these phenomena 
cause us to think that chemical causes may have ex- 
ercised an enormous and wide-spread action in rock- 
disintegration, and whose results may be still found re- 
corded in the soils of the older continents and lands. 

Weathering. — In previous paragraphs it has been im 
dicated that large masses, and areas of lava surfaces, 
have suffered primary disintegration under the action of 
chemical causes; and that other vast areas have not been 
acted upon by those special chemical agents. All lavas, 
however, whether they have, or have not been initially 
acted upon by chemical agencies, are resolved by the in- 
fluences of "simple weathering" into the palpable state 
in which they are called soils. 

The several influences that are understood under the 
term "weathering" may be summarily expressed as 
variations in atmospheric lieat and moisture. Great ex- 
tremes of temperature act powerfully in the fracturing 
and disintegrating of rock masses where moisture is 
present. In tropical climates the extremes of tempera- 
ture do not obtain, but the continuous action of high 
temperature, combined with rainfall, upon rock surfaces 
leads to the same results; and when these combined in- 



56 



fluences are aided bv the growth and decay of a hixuriant 
vegetation, the final work of" <lisintegTatlon is very rapid. 

The appearance and cliemical composition of decompose 
ino- lavas and their decom])osition-])i'odncts are affected 
by the degree of atmospheric heat and moisture. On the 
lee side of these islands, where the heat is more constant 
and intense, the air dry, and the rainfall almost noth- 
ing, the lavas undergo a slow, dvjj oxydation, and become 
a soft red or rich chocolate in color, due to the formation 
of non-hydrous oxide of iron. In locations Avhere the 
moisture in the air is high, and the rainfall great, and 
sometimes enormous, the same lavas undergo a more 
decidedly hydrous oxydation, which gives to them a yel- 
l(>w, or yellow-brownish color, due to the hydration of the 
iron oxide. This effect compares, in a measure, with the 
results of oxydation under the action of steam upon the 
lavas, which, in the case of tufas, has been shown to 
produce colors of every hue and degree of vividness. 
These various results of weathering, under the action of 
different conditions of heat and moisture, will be further 
considered in connection with soils. 

At the time that the wi'itei- collected specimens of 
the great masses of solid lavas upon the several islands, 
specimens were taken of these same lavas that had been 
exposed to atmospheric action, and which represented 
states of disintegration under simple weathering. The 
condition of these weathering lavas is set forth by the 
following partial analyses. 



57 



WEATHERING LAVAS. 





Com- 






1 




Moisture. 


bined 


SiO.. 


FeO 


FeoO,, 1 AI„0., 


CaO 




water. 












Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent 


Percent 


Per cent. 


Per cent 


Per cent 


2.57 


3.53 


43 19 


5 40 


9 90 


23.47 




3.26 


12.71 


39.31 


2 63 


12.63 


25 08 




5.71 


7.61 


36 38 


3 75 


15 81 


20.58 


S 


3 94 


3.23 


35.38 


4.94 


8.53 


16.58 


^ 


9.48 


8 31 


30.24 


8 45 


8.38 


20.22 


-s< 


9.25 


10.40 


26.19 


8.38 


14.38 


25.18 




Mean. 5 70 


7.63 


35 11 


5 59 


11.27 


21.85 


7.06 



The ayerage composition of these weathering lavas \v(; 
now bring into comparison, especially, with the hydrous 
solid lavas, with which they were originally identical, 
and with the tufas. The first line in the table is given to 
the non-hydrous solid lavas. 



Lavas. 


Mois- 
ture 

Per 
cent. 

41 

0.82 
5 70 


Com- 
bined 
water 


t 
SioJ FeO 


Pe.O;, 


AUO, 


CaO 


Solid (non-hydrous) 

Solid (hvdrons) 


Per 
cent. 

13 

1.96 

7.63 

11.49 


Per Per 
cent. 1 cent 

49.I2I 8.43 
44 66 8.66 


Per 
cent 

4.04 
5.62 


Per 
cent. 

21.94 
17 06 
21.85 
23.58 


Per 
cent, 

9.24 

8.23 




35.11 .5.59 11.27 


7.06 


Tufas 


7.72 


26.60 1.69 


25.79 


1.41 



In the individual analyses, as well as in the averages, 
the signal differences between the tufas and the normally 
weathered lavas, are seen in the exhaustion of the lime, 
reduction of the alumina, and enormous increase of the 
iron in the former, as compared with the steady loss of 
lime and increase of iron and alumina in the latter. The 
action of sulphurous steam upon the tufas has already 
been explained as a cause of the rapid removal of the 
lime, also of the alumina, from the lavas. The removal 



58 



of the silica, as the hydration of the lavas proceeds, will 
be spoken of in anotlier place, and in connection with the 
subject of the loss of materials from the land, as indicated 
by the examination of waters of discharge. 

In studying any given kind of rocks or lavas their 
characteristic features are brought out with a more im^ 
pressive clearness by bringing them into comparison with 
other classes of rocks. For this reason we shall give the 
chemical composition of various rocks which make up 
formations in North America, and from which the soils 
of those regions have been derived. For the composition 
of American rocks we are indebted to the incomparable 
collection of "Analyses of Eocks" by Messrs. F. W. 
Clarke and W. F. Hillebrand, of the U. S. Geological 
Survey. 

COMPOSITION OF AMERICAN ROCKS. 



Rocks. 



SiOa AI2O.. 



Fe.,0< 



Per Per Per 

cent I cent cent. 

(1) Siliceous Sandstones... 88.48 5.85 3 10 

(2) Granites 72.501440 2 14 

(3) Loess 67.761189 4.15 

(4) Clay stones 57.00 24 50 1 .05 

(5) Slates and Shales.. .. 51 36 15.54 4.14 

(6) Iron Carb-silicates 36 00 122 2 52 

(7) Lime Carb-sulf-silicates 4.42i 0.32] 0.30 



FeO CaO MgO 



Per Per Per 
cent. cent. I cent. 



0.00 
00; 
00 
0.00 

3.85! 
26.45 



44 
1.76 
3.65 

3 18 
1.82 

4 44 



0.00 50.65 



Mean of Above 53 9312 00 6.81 

American Basalts 49 . 15 15 66 9 . 52 

Hawaiian Basalts 47 . 90 18 23 13 . 36 



9 42 

8.29 
8.99 



0.66 

52 
1.92 

1 65 
3 20 
4.43 
2.28 



KoO 



Per 
cent 

1 41 

4.58 

2 37 

2 '81 



Na,0 

Per 
cent. 

1.29 
3.33 
1.52 

1 73 



40 0.30 



2 10 2.31 1.67 
7.90 2.84 1 90 
6 05 2 20 1.50 



Our immediate purpose in com])aring the several 
classes of American rocks with Hawaiian lavas will be 
very presently seen in the discussion of Hawaiian soils. 

There is a profound geological reason, however, for the 
comparison of tlicse classes of rocks with basalts. If we 



59 



refer back to the decomposition-products, which we have 
shown are severally formed from the disintegration of 
layas, we are struck by the resemblance of these Hawai- 
ian products, in chemical composition, to the respective 
kinds of American rocks. At this time we do no more 
than note this analogy, and shall reserve its discussion 
until the time when the whole subject matter of this 
study shall be considered at a later time in a work of 
greater scope and detail. 



HAWAIIAN SOILS. 



Under tlie action of the several agents and modes of 
disintegration, it has been shown how that the lavaa 
have become decomposed and resolved into earths. It is 
thus from the decomposition of the lavas that the soils 
of these islands have been derived. 

It has been shoAvn moreover, that in the course of dis~ 
integration the lavas have yielded a series of earths and 
products, each of which has been more or less separated 
from the others, and many of which have been removed 
from the place of their formation, and have gone to the 
laying down of other formations, either at lower levels on 
the land, or under the sea. Due to the small areas of 
these islands, and to the acute declinations from the 
mountains to the ocean, and also to heavy rains, especial- 
ly on the windward exposures, the separation-products in 
the disintegration have been borne largely to the sea. 

If the lavas, in the course of disintegration, have fallen 
into these several classes of decomposition products, 
many of which have been separated from the mass, and 
carried away, it then appears that the soils in i)lace must 
bear only a remote relation to the rocks from which they 
have been derived. A comparison of the composition of 
the lavas, with the average of some six hundred soils de- 
rived from tliem, indicates that the relation is a very dis- 
turbed one. In the following comparison the constituents 



61 



of the soil are calculated on the mineral matter, iu order 
to note the extent of the alteration. 

COMPOSITION OF HAWAIIAN LAVAS AND SOILS. 



Material. 


Si 


FeO 

+ 
Fe2 O., 


AI2O3 


Ca 


MgO 


Na,0 


K, 


Hawaiian Lavas 
Hawaiian Soils. 


Per 
cent. 

47.90 
27.54 


Per 
cent. 

13.36 

36.45 


Per 
cent 

18.23 

22.64 


Per 
cent. 

8.99 
0.46 


Per 
cent. 

6.05 
1.07 


Per 
cent . 

2.20 
1.19 


Per 
cent. 

1.50 
0.62 



In general, the comparison shows that the silica, lime, 
magnesia, the alkalies, also much alumina have been 
borne away. Fortunately the life in the sea has gathered 
up much of the escaping lime, and restored it to us, at 
our very doors, in the form of coral reefs which begirt 
the islands. The full significance of the vast difference 
in the composition of the lavas and soils will be con- 
sidered in detail at a later time, the X3resent purpose being 
only to illustrate that these, and all other soils bear only 
a distant relation to the rocks from which they have been 
formed. There are formations and soils which represent 
the separation products, and other soils the residual products 
of the lavas and rocks from whose disintegration they 
have been derived. We have to deal, in the main, with 
soils that are the residual products of disintegrated 
lavas. 

Attention has alreacty been called to the action of tem^ 
perature and rainfall in the matter of weathering of 
rocks, and in the final disintegration of the materials 
forming soils. The variations in rainfall and the effects 
of less or greater precipitation, have been such as to ad- 
vise the division of the soils into uplands and lowlands, 
the former representing the areas of larger, and the latter 



62 



the areas of smaller rainfall. lu later para<>raplis we 
shall discuss these evidences of the direct results of local 
climatic conditions. Just now, we have to consider our 
soils from a point of view from which it may be seen that 
the great differences in their nature, and economic value, 
are due to other causes, no less than to variations in 
climatic conditions. 

The soils of these islands, and of other countries where 
the lands bear a resemblance to these, pass generally 
under the definition of red, or yellow soils. At first view 
this definition seems to be in place; but when we come 
to examine into the origin of the different reds and yel- 
lows, and note their chemical compositions, it is then 
found that this general definition does not apply, and may 
actually conceal the most basic and vital differences. 
Moreover, the definition is too definite, giving the impes- 
sion, more or less, that all our land surfaces are either 
vivid reds or bright yellows, which is far from the case. 
The red soils vary in colors from dark reds to crimson 
and light reds, the latter usually being contiguous to, 
or found within areas where soils that vary in color from 
light to reddish-yellow prevail. The dark, blood-red 
soils are frequently more distinctly marked off from 
those of other colors; but this is not, by any means, al- 
ways so. Then, in addition to red and yellow soils we 
shall have to speak of certain dark soils, and of their 
origin and characteristics. 

The common definition has been carried still further, 
and used to denote the qualities of the soils : In general, 
the red soils have come to be considered as good soils, and 
the yellow as poor soils. This also is far from being 
wholly correct; although certain red soils are very fertile, 
and many yellow soils are sterile. Actual experience has 



63 



shown men engaged in the island agriculture that whilst 
given areas of red land are rich, and permanent in fertili- 
ty, there are other red soils in which, practically speak^ 
ing, nothing will grow. This is actually the case, despite 
the general definition which has marked the red soils as 
good soils. We have therefore, in the first place, to inquire 
into the causes of difference between the kinds of red 
soils, and into the enormous differences in their fertility 
and economic value? 

Dark Red Soils. — In the previous paragraphs, which 
were occupied by the examination of the several forms 
of lavas, the results and conclusions arrived at were sum- 
med up as follows : "Amongst Hawaiian lavas are those 
which have discharged from craters, flowing and cooling 
into rocks having the composition of normal basalts. 
Others, originally of the same composition, have under- 
gone such alteration that they now compose rocks 
masses having a radically different chemical composition 
and color appearance. This alteration took place at the 
time of ejection, and under the action of chemical causes, 
and previous to the later action of secondary causes of 
rock disintegration, such as 'weathering,' which has 
apparently been the only agent of disintegration of cer- 
tain of the normal lavas." 

There are broad and defined areas, especially upon the 
Islands of Mauai, Oahu and Kauai, where the lava dis- 
charges from the great craters have flowed and cooled 
into rocks, and upon which simple weathering appears 
to have acted as the only influence in their disintegra^ 
tion; and there are other more acutely marked areas 
where the lavas have undergone such alteration at the 
time of ejection that their appearance and composition 

are radicallv different from those of normal lavas. 



(U 



The areas Avliicli represent tlie flows of normal, unal- 
tered lavas, whose surfaces appear to have become disin- 
tegrated by the slow action of simple weathering, are 
found, in the greatest part, upon the lee sides, or south 
exposures of the Islands; and consequently within the 
districts of smallest rainfall. This is far from being 
exclusively, although it is mainly so. It happens fur- 
ther, that whilst certain of these areas are not exposed 
strictly to the south, the rainfall, due to local topo- 
graphy, is nevertheless small. In distinction from what 
we have said is chiefly the rule, there are at least two 
small and indistinctly defined areas on Hawaii where it 
appears that the underlying lava has come down from 
the great craters by a free flow, and has been largely 
free from other causes of disintegration than weathering. 
Those areas have a full windward exposure, and lie under, 
the one a very heavy, and the other a medium rainfall. 

The areas, that have been defined as representing dis^ 
charges of more or less free flowing, normal lavas, which 
lavas have undergone slow disintegration in hot expos- 
ures, with a minimum rainfall, are now the districts 
marked by the ])r(Mlominance of <l(ii-k nd soils. These 
districts are known as follows: Paia, and ])arts of 
Spreckelsville and Lahaina, on the Island of ^Maui. In 
these districts a high tem])erature with hot winds pre- 
vail, and a mean annual rainfall of about twenty inches. 
The upper district of Ewa, parts of Waianae and Waia- 
lua, on the Island of Oahu; where high temperatures 
prevail, and the rainfall does not exceed thirty inches. 
Waimea, IMakaweli, and parts of the districts of Lihue 
and Kealia on the Island of Kauai. The districts of Wai- 
mea and Makaweli are distinguished by high tempera- 
tures and dry winds laden with clouds of red dust. In 



65 



these districts the rainfall is also not more than thirty 
inches per annum. In Lihue the temperature is high,, 
and the rainfall on the low, red lands small. It is not 
to be understood that no other than "deep red soils" are 
found in these districts; but rather that these red soils 
predominate, and have caused the districts to be distin^ 
guished by their prevalence. 

Generally, the "dark red soils," in the districts we have 
named, go down to a great depth. We have noted the 
cutting of water ditches to three and four feet deep; yet 
at the latter depth is found the same texture of soil, of 
the same deep, blood red color. In these soils no small 
rock fragments, or stones, are found, or very seldom; 
but large areas are more or less covered with decompos- 
ing lava blocks or boulders, some of which protrude 
through the surface of the lands, and others are conceal- 
ed below. The soil, however, is formed to a depth below 
msinj of the lavas blocks, which are imbedded in it. In 
clearing large areas, in the districts mentioned, enormous 
cost has been incurred in removing these lava blocks 
that were in the way of deep cultivation, and pyramids 
of lava are seen stacked up in fields from which they have 
been collected. 

We have spoken of these "dark red soils" as resting 
upon "areas of discharge of what were more or less free 
flowing, normal lavas." It is necessary to say, however, 
that the apparently great age of the lavas from which 
the dark red soils have been derived, and the advanced 
state of disintegration, make it difficult, and often im^ 
possible to form any conclusion as to the mode in which 
those lavas discharged from the crater. The great "lava 
blocks or boulders," that have been described as dis- 
tributed through and imbedded in the soil, suggest that 

5 



6G 



the flows may have been so-called "aa" of tlie roughest 
aud most heaped-iip description, which contained, or in 
disintegration became resolved into, separate boulders. 
Or, as we see to-day at Kilauea, the lava may have 
flowed comparatively smoothly, and on cooling, con^ 
tracted, and became broken up into blocks of small or 
greater dimensions. This much, hoAvever, we are able to 
be sure of — that the lavas from which the dark red soils 
have been derived were normal, unaltered lavas; in acute 
distinction from the tufa lavas, the soils furnished by 
which will be discussed later. In proof of the unaltered 
nature of these lavas at the time of discharge, the ex- 
amination of the inside or kernels of the greater blocks 
imbedded in the soil, and which have had to be broken 
up by blasting, and removed to permit of cultivation, 
has shown these to have the same compact texture, and 
the dark blue-gray color of unchanged lavas, and the 
chemical analyses state that they are normal basalts. 
Further, we are able to say that these lavas have under- 
gone disintegration under the action of simple weather- 
ing; and in climatic conditions characterized by almost 
uninterrupted sunlight of great intensity; a constantly 
hot and dry atmosphere, and an extremely small rain- 
fall. 

The deep soft red color of the soils under discussion 
has to be associated with the mode of oxydation of the 
iron constituents of the lavas. The normal lavas contain 
the iron, in the greatest part, in the form of dark ferrous 
oxide. When this ferrous oxide is exposed to the agencies 
Axhich cause disintegration it takes up a further quantity 
of oxygen, and goes over into ferric oxide. If the disinte- 
gration of the lavas containing much iron takes place in 



67 



a moist atmosphere, or under great rainfall, or in the 
presence of steam, the ferrous iron not only takes up more 
oxygen, but some water in combination with it. If, how- 
ever, the decomposition of the lavas is slow, and proceeds 
in a dry atmosphere, and at high temperature, the fer- 
rous iron can go gradually over into the ferric state by 
the taking up of oxygen from the air, Avitli little or no 
water. These conditions go to determine what the color 
of the oxydized iron and that of the decomposed lava 
and soil in which the iron is present, shall be when the 
disintegration is complete. Where dry oxydation takes 
place, as in conditions of high temperature and no moist- 
ure, the color of the iron, and of the earth or soil that 
it colors, is red. If the oxydation takes i)lace in the 
presence of moisture, and especially of excess of moisture, 
or steam, the color can vary from that of iron rust, 
through degrees of shade to actual yellow, which latter 
we find in our sub-soils under great rainfall, and in tufa 
masses where the iron has undergone oxydation saturat- 
ed with steam. The color of the oxydation products 
where excess of steam has operated depends however 
upon the temperature of the steam at the time of action. 
Dana and other geologists have observed that where 
"the temperature of the steam exceeds 200 degrees 
Fahrenheit the iron oxide may be red." In another place 
Dana remarks "under exposure to air and moisture, the 
ferrous oxide changes to brown or limonite yellow." 
Thus, and apparently due to the cause explained, the 
tufa masses, and tufa soils, may be either red or yellow, 
which depends upon the heat of the steam that acted on 
them at the time of ejection. In proof of this, it is found 
that all the yellow and brown tufas and soils instantly 



G8 



turn rod when tlioy are heated, and the eonibined water 
is? driven off. 

It is thus indicated that the dark red soils have not 
onlv been derived from normal, unaltered lavas, but they 
have been formed under physical conditions of heat and 
dryness that render the oxydized iron, and earths contain- 
ing it, red. We have already si)oken of the dryness of the 
air, and the smallness of the rainfall over the areas where 
the dark red soils prevail. The action also of the direct 
heat of the vertical sun rays is intense! We have taken 
the temperatures of the surfaces of bare lavas upon which 
the sun had been descending for several hours, and whilst 
the temperature of the air did not exceed 85 degrees, and 
was often much less, the absorbed heat of the lavas was 
greater than the hand could bear, and has been found 
to be over IGO degrees Fahrenheit. The opposite climatic 
conditions prevailing in other districts, where the moist- 
ure of the air and the rainfall are extreme, enable us 
to accottnt for the brown or rttst color of the soils, and 
the light, yellow color of the sub-soils, even where those 
soils are the weathered products of normal lavas. We 
have mentioned two areas on the windward side of Ha- 
waii where the soils appear to have been derived from 
solid, unaltered lavas by the action of weathering. The 
location of thirty-nine lateral or tufa cones, however, 
upon the areas lying between Hilo and Kuktiihaele in- 
dicate how uncertain it is to say where, and where not, 
special chemical action has primarily assisted in the 
disintegration of the lavas, and which are soils formed 
by weathering, and which are derived from tufas? The 
two small areas indicated are found, the one in the 
neighborhood of Pepeekeo, and the other forming the 
deep, and generally more uniform, lands of Paauhau. 



69 



The rainfall in the district around Pepeekeo is about 150 
inches per year; and while the rainfall at Paauhau is 
now much less, there are evidences that the whole district 
of Hamakua, and also that of Kohala, existed under con- 
ditions of moisture and rainfall, during some former 
period, quite different to what obtain to-dav. The Island 
of Hawaii does not furnish such acutely defined localities 
of normal lavas that have been disintegrated by weather^ 
ing, as distinguished from tufa lava areas, as are found 
on the other three islands; neither have its climatic con- 
ditions been such as to impart definite colors to the lavas 
during their course of disintegration. Apart from the 
tufas, and the red and yellow or gray colored products 
of decomposition of the lavas formed under special 
chemical causes, the decaying rocks, and the soils of Ha^ 
waii are more generally of a rust color, which combines 
the yellow and a dullish red, each of these colors coming 
more or less to the front in some locations and soils. 
In locations where accumulations of organic matter in 
great abundance have decayed, the soils are darker, or 
almost black. Especially upon the ujjper lands, where 
the rainfall is the greatest, and the organic decay enor- 
mous, a very dark soil may be found overlying a subsoil 
which at a depth of two feet, is almost bright yellow, or 
a yellow tinted with spots of light red. 

Leaving the "dark red soils," and passing on to the 
"light red or crimson red soils," which are frequently 
confounded with the former, we have already remarked 
that the crimson and light red, on account of their origin 
and chemical composition, belong essentially to the class 
which includes the "yellow soils." For this reason vei-y 
little attention has been given to the light red soils, as 
they are not a type distinct in themselves. The follow- 



iug comparison of dark red soils witli samples of lii;ht 
red soils indicates the great distinction in the relative 
amounts of the more prominent constituents, as shown 
by the auricultural analyses: 



Soils. 


Insolu- 
ble Mat- 
ter. 


Com 
bnstible 
Matter. 


Fe, O.., 


Alo 0., 


CaO 


Dark Red Soils 


Per 
cent 

37.202 
24.500 


Per 
cent 

11.330 

20.040 


Per 
cent. 

22.94 
29.10 


Per 
cent 

16.84 
10.01 


Per 
cent. 

0.344 


Light Red Soils 


0.150 







This comparison in average suggests that in the dark 
red, and light red soils we have to do with tAvo distinct 
types. The relative fertility, and economic values of 
the two types will be set forth in another place. 

Yellow ais^d Light Red Soils. — We now come to con- 
sider soils that appear to be derived from lavas which, 
although originally of the same character as the normal 
lavas from which the dark red soils were derived, under- 
went such alteration at the time of ejection, under the 
action of steam and acid vapors, that their appearance 
and chemical composition are radically different to that 
of the normal lavas, and which we largely explaiiUMl un~ 
der the head of "tufas." 

It has been shown that lateral or "tufa cones" exist 
on all the islands; that tufa lavas are very generally 
distributed; consequently, what may be called fiifa .so/7.<? 
are found composing large land areas. The circumstance 
that ejections of tufa lavas have marked the expiring 
activities of large, as well as the chief action of the 
lateral craters, would cause a wide-spread prevalence of 
these altered lavas. Forming largely the latest ejections, 



71 



and covering up earlier flows of more solid lavas, tliey 
compose, over large breadths of surface, the rock 
materials from which the soils have been derived. 

Over the four large islands, the districts that havfe 
been more especially marked by tufa cone action, and 
where tufa lavas, and yellow and light red soils are found, 
are parts of Hilo, Hamakua, and Kohala, on the Island 
of Hawaii; Makawao and Hamakuapoko, on the Island 
of Maui; Heeia, and parts of Honolulu, Pearl City, Waia- 
lua and Kaliuku, on the Island of Oahu. Parts of Liliue 
and Kealia, and Kilauea and Koloa on Kauai. Kilauea, 
Koloa, Heeia, Makawao and some localities on Hawaii 
have been centers of the most violent tufa-lava produc- 
tion upon the Hawaiian Islands. 

The colors and appearance of the tufa masses, we have 
already explained, pass from crimson red to the brightest 
yellow, every shade of lighter red, browns, and j^ellows 
being found between these extremes. Samples of dis- 
tinct red and of yellow tufas were taken and examined 
in order to note whether the composition of the materials 
of different colors were analogous. In general, it was 
difficult to gain any instruction from a comparison of 
samples taken incidentally. The variations amongst the 
red on the one hand, and the yellow on the other, were 
as great as the variations between the red and the yellow. 
The only mode of obtaining comparative data was by 
obtaining samples of red and yellow from blocks in close 
contiguity in the same tufa mass. In a few instances 
only could this be done, but in these instances it was 
managed with great reliability. The samples, affording 
the analyses to be given, were taken from places not 
more than six feet apart. The lines of division between 
the red and yellow materials in place were acute and 



72 



defiuit(\ Tlii'ouj^h the materials in block, marks of 
fissures, up which escaping steam had risen, are still 
visible. The composition of these tufas was found as 
follows — the averages being given, and only of the con- 
stituents which form the chief mass of the materials. 



Lavas. 


Combined 
Water. 


Si Oo 


Fe O 


Feo O, 


Al, On 


Yellow Tufas .... 
Bed Tufas 


Per een 
10.60 

9.56 


Per cent. 

33 14 
32.58 


Per cent. 

3.26 
1.01 


Per cent. 

17.64 
20.42 


Per cent. 

25.30 

27.72 



It is seen that all the elements are found in about 
equal quantities in the two tufas. Noteworthy is the 
more advanced state of oxydation of the iron in the red 
material, through which, it is supposed, that steam of 
higher temperature has passed than passed through the 
yellow material. It is to the higher temperature of the 
steam that passed through the rock materials, according 
to the opinions of geologists already quoted, and our 
own observations, that the color of the red tufas ai)pears 
to be due. All the yellow tufas become red almost in- 
stantly when heated. That the color is not determined 
by the proportion of iron i)resent in the tufas, or in the 
soils derived from them, api)ears from the fact that the 
amount of iron in the red tufas analysed varies between 
11.87% and 26.3%; and in the yellow tufas the variation 
is from 21.0% to 28.43%. We have found one yellow 
material containing 49.11% of iron, and also some red 
materials containing above 60% of iron; but these were 
materials where the subsequent action of rain and air 
had caused the removal of the constituents, leaving a 
ferruginous residue. The determination of the color ap- 



73 



pears to be due, not to the amount of iron present, but 
rather to the form in which it is combined, and to the 
character of the physical conditions, such as temperature, 
at the time of emission of the tufa lavas. It is specially 
to be remarked that heat converts all the variations of 
color into an uniform red. 

The colors of the tufas pass on into the soils. Mounds 
and areas of tufa masses that were left a brilliant red 
at the expiration of the volcanic activity have passed, 
and are passing into light red soils; and yellow soils re- 
suit from the decay of yellow tufa masses. The masses 
of mixed colors have decomposed into soils in which 
definite shades are lost, and continued cultivation, and 
the results of erosion and washing of heavy rains, with 
the darkening action of vegetation are assisting to oblit- 
erate the original more definite colors. Before leaving 
the brief descriptions that have been made of the appear- 
ance, and apparent origins of "dark red soils," and of 
the "yellow and light red soils," we wish once more to 
guard against the conclusion that Hawaiian soils are all 
either distinctly red or yellow. We have endeavored to 
bring into relief certain widespread and dominant types. 
There are large areas, however, that cannot be included 
by these types, and the particular phenomena of whose 
formation our accounts of probable origin of the red 
and yellow types do not necessarily cover. There are 
situations where the enormous rainfalls have made it 
difficult or impossible to trace the earlier causes of rock 
disintegration; whicli causes have assisted to determine 
the present character of the soils. But we are persuaded 
that these soils, whose origin and characteristics are not 
so definitely marked, come more or less within the two 



74 



great classes that we liave described. This is indicated 
by their h)cati()ii and chemical compositiou. 

Sedimentary Soils. — In addition to the two types of 
soils which have been described as formed in place, there 
are considerable areas that owe their formation to Avash 
and deposition. These areas are fonnd mainly on the 
leeward side of the islands, and in districts of small rain« 
fall. The deposition is cansed by heavy rains falling in 
the mountains, carrying with them and distributing the 
materials of decomposing rocks over the lower levels. 
There are lands, where crops are growing to-day, that 
were formerly overflowed by the sea, which is indicated 
by the underlying coral formation. The rock debris 
brought from the upper altitudes has laid down deposits 
over these low lands Avliich vary from one foot to thirty 
feet in depth of soil. These soils are usually very fertile, 
which is due to the circumstance that only the finest of 
the decomposing rock materials, and materials that have 
been thoroughly acted upon by the sun and air, and 
which are frequently mixed with organic matter, have 
been washed down. These soils bear the color of the 
decomposed rock nmterial, frequently darkened by 
organic matter. 

The districts where cultivatable areas of these deposit- 
ed soils are found are parts of Ewa, AYaianae, and Wai- 
manalo, and pockets on Heeia and Kahuku,.on the Island 
of Oaliu; parts of Spreckelsville, Wailuku, Olowalu, and 
Lahaina, on the Island of Maui; Mana, Kekaha, and 
pockets in Waimea, Koloa, Lihue, and Kealia, on the 
Island of Kauai. In addition to areas that are chiefly 
I)lanted with sugar cane, in the districts named, these 
sedimentary soils are deposited at the outlets of each 
little valley, forming small deltas of highly fertile soils. 



<b 



The relative fertility aud ec-ouomie value of tliese soils 
will be compared with those of the other types of soil in 
a later place. 

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF HAWAIIAN SOILS. 

Following- the descriptions that have been given, we 
shall present the results of the physical and chemical 
examinations of the "dark red soils," aud of the "yellow 
and light red soils." As the sedimentary soils are not 
soils formed in place, but the result of w^ash, and of 
the indiscriminate removal and mixture of the two kinds 
of lavas which have respectively formed the dark red and 
light red and yellow soils, less attention has been given, 
so far, to their composition. 

In the chciuical r.rainiiiatioii, the mode of analysis is 
determined by the object or objects that are in view;— 
by the questions that the analytical data are required to 
explain. 

If the purpose is an arbitrary one, and the data are 
required in order to compare the behaviour of one soil 
with that of soni-e other soil, or of the soils of one type 
with those of some other tj]ie, under the action of some 
solvent that has been determined upon as a standard, 
then the usual agricultural anah/sls is enough, and adai)ted 
to that purpose. 

If instead of, or in addition to, the information furnish- 
ed by the agricultural analysis, and for geological 
reasons, we require to know the total mineral constit- 
uents that compose a soil, and the relation of its compo- 
sition to the lavas or rocks from which it has been 
derived, then nothing short of an ahsoJufe anahjsl'^ will do. 

In these investigations, a leading purpose has been to 



76 



trace the respective types of soils to their geological 
origins. This has been attempted by endeavoring to 
ascertain the nature and mode of discharge of the lavas, 
and the processes of disintegration by which the lavas 
have become resolved into soils. In order to complete the 
research, and to bring the original lavas and the re^ 
suiting soils into linal comparison, it is necessary to have 
the total mineral compositions of the lavas and the soils. 
For this reason "absolute analyses'' have been made of 
all the soils. Also "agricultural analyses" have been 
made of the same soils, to furnish the value of a compari- 
son of Hawaiian soils with those of other countries. 

Therefore, the "chemical examination" embraces: (1) 
The "agricultural analysis," or the estimation of the 
amount and constituents of the soil brought into solution 
bj^ the action of hydrochloric acid, of 1.115 sp. gr., for a 
period of 10 hours digestion on a water bath. 

(2) The analysis of the insoliihle residue of the soil, 
found insoluble by the "agricultural analysis." 

(3) The "absolute analysis" of the soil free from water, 
but including comhustihle matter. 

(4) The "absolute analysis," calculated on the soil free 
from water and "combustible matter." 

The statement of results gives only the average com^ 
positions of the "dark red soils," and of the "yellow and 
light red soils." The average for each type embraces 
JO type samples, and 120 snh-samples, and represents all 
the great areas covered by the respectiA^e types of soils. 
The actual number of analyses made is much greater 
than is included in this statement, the agricultural 
analyses embracing over 1300 sub-samples; but these 
averages are based upon soils only Avhich are very defi- 
nitely representative of the respective types. To give the 



77 



analysis of each individual sample would take up an un^ 
necessary space, and would not bear on the i)resent pur- 
pose. The indiyidual analyses are for use in adyising in 
the matter of fertilization on the several plantations. 

DARK RED SOILS. 



Constituent 
Elements. 


Agricultural 

Analysis. 


Insoluble 
Residue 


Absolute Analysis. 


Insoluble Matter 


1 er cent. 

37.202 

6.160 

11.330 

""2.589' ' 

0.193 

0.310 

0.180 
22.942 
16.838 

0.344 

0.437 

0.420 

386 

0.752 


Insoluble 
In H CI. 


Water-free 
Soil. 


Mineral 
Matter. 


Combustible Matter . . 

Si O2 (iosoluble) 

Si 0-2 (soluble) 

Ti O2 


Per cent. 

"25 '390 

43.460 

10.140 

0.310 


Per cent. 

12.156 

10.064 

17.606 

6.711 

0.322 

0.332 

0.193 

26.212 

23.717 

0.500 

0.659 

0.277 

0.512 

1.139 


Per cent. 

"'il.449' * 

20.000 

7.625 


P2 O5 

S O3 


0.365 
0.379 


r, Do 






Fe-2 O3 

AI2 O3 


4 050 

14.160 

0.340 

0.510 


29.784 
26.944 


Ca 

Mg 

Mns O4 

K2 

Na2 


0.568 
0.748 
0.314 


0.260 
0.860 


0.581 
1.300 




100.083 


99.480 


100.400 


100.057 



Acidic Constituents of the Soils =39.818 Per cent. 

Basic Constituents of the Soils = 60.237 

Total Nitrogen in the Soils = 0.179 

Soluble in 3 percent K O H, in 30 hours. = 0.106 
Insoluble " " " " = 0.073 
Water Absorptive Power of the Soils = 63.3 " 



78 



YELLOW AND LIGHT llED SOILS. 



Constituent 
Elements. 


Agricultural 
Analysis. 


Insoluble 
Residue. 


f 

Absolute Analysis. 


■ 

Insoluble Matter 

Moisture 


Per cent, 

24.204 
10.480 

20.440 


Insolul)le 
in H CI. 


Water-free 
Soil. 


Mineral 
Matter. 


Combustible Matter 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 
23.000 

8.850 
9.350 
7.818 
570 
0.140 
0.19(5 
33.269 
14.123 
0.285 
1.084 
369 
0.511 
0.843 


Per cent. 


SiOo (insoluble) 


32.550 

34.390 

15.530 

0.410 


11.492 


Si 0.2 (soluble) 




12.141 


Ti 0-2 


3.200 
0.409 
0.180 
0.250 
28.720 
9.891 
0.148 
0.745 
0.435 
0.378 
0.621 


10.153 


p., 0.3 


0.740 


S O3 


0.180 


C Oi . 






Fe-i O3 


3.700 

11.080 

0.440 

0.910 


43.116 


Al-2 O3 


18.337 


CaO 


0.370 


MgO 


1407 


Mn 3 4 


0.478 


K2O. 


0.360 
0.540 


0.663 


Na2 0.' 


1.094 








100.101 


99.910 


100.408 


100.171 



Acidic Coustituents of the Soils 
Basic Constituents of the Soils 

Total Nitrogen in the Soils . . . . 



=34.706 Per cent. 
=65.465 

= 0.459 



Solubl- in 3 per cent K O H, in :!0 hours = 0.360 
Insoluble '■ " = 0.099 

Water Absorptive Power of the Soils . . =77.000 



The determiDations of "absorptive power" were made 
with the "flue earth," which comprised 84.3% of the total 
soil. 

Whatever may have been the cause or causes of the 
difference, the rehitive compositions of the "dark red" 
and the "yellow and light red" indicate that we are deal- 
ing with extremely different types of soils. 

After allowing for the higher amounts of moisture and 
combustible matter in the yellow soils, it remains notice^ 
able that these soils contain a smaller proportion of con- 
stituents than the dark red soils that is not brought 
into solution by the hydrochloric acid. Tlie vellow and 



79 



light red soils are distinctly more soluble than the dark 
red soils. This also appears in fusing the soils to prepare 
for the absolute analysis. The light colored soils fuse 
more readily than the dark red ones. The relative 
amounts of "moisture" and "combustible matter" in the 
two types will be noticed more in detail in connection 
^^ ith considerations on the effects of climatic conditions. 
Proceeding now upon the basis of the data giving the 
"mineral matter" by absolute analysis, it is seen that 
the total silica iu the dark red soils is 33% greater than 
in the yellow and light red soils. Moreover the soluble 
silica is almost double that of the insoluble silica in dark 
red soils, whilst iu the yellow soils the soluble and inso- 
luble silicas are nearly the same. We believe that the 
climatic conditions have accounted for some part of this 
great difference; yet the comparison of "upland," or soils 
under heavy rainfall, and "low land," or soils under 
small rainfall, with the "dark red soils" and "yellow 
soils" indicates that the great difference in the matter of 
silica is a structural difference in the two types. 



Soils. 


Insoluble Silica. 


Soluble Silica. 


Dark Red Soils 

Yellow and Light Red 


Per cent. 
11.449 
11.492 

14 ..568 
13 569 


Percent. 

20 000 
12.141 


Upland Soils .... 

Lowland Soils 


14.4.50 
16.099 









The full data giving the composition of the "upland" 
and "low land" soils will be produced later. 

The comparisons in this table enable us to estimate 
how much climatic conditions have caused the difference 
in the content of silica, and. in its state of solubility, and 
how much may be due to differences in structural compo^ 



80 



sition of the two types of soils. In viewing the relative 
amounts of "soluble" and "insoluble" silica, it is impor- 
tant to note the actually insoluble character of the latter. 
When the "insoluble residues" were digested with a fresh 
quantity of hydrochloric acid, the silica resisted absolute- 
ly any further action of the acid, no more going into 
solution. Even after the removal of the soluble silica 
from the insoluble residues, further digestion witli tlie 
acid had hardly an appreciable action. 

The titanic acid is enormous in both types (the mean 
titanic acid in 10 lavas was 3.5%). Its increase in each 
soil is strictly proportional to the decrease in the amount 
of silica. In the "dark red soils" there is 7.625% of 
titanic acid to 31.45% of silica. If Ave consider thia 
amount as reduced to the proportion present in the 
"yellow and light red soils," which is 23.6%, then the 
titanic acid to 31.45%; of silica. If we consider this 
latter soils. These data not only show the insoluble 
nature of the titanic acid, they also furnish a furthei- 
indication that all the lavas, in their original state, w^ere 
similar in composition, and that the difference in com- 
position of the tufas or altered lavas, from which the 
yellow and light red soils have largely been derived, was 
caused at the time of, or after, their emission from the 
craters. These observations upon the titanic acid are 
made for the reason that it is the behaviour of the least 
soluble constituents that we have to specially note in the 
endeavor to trace a soil back to the rock from which it 
was derived, and to judge of llie ])riinaTy identity of 
rocks or lavas from which different soils have come. 
Titanic acid a])pears to be the most insoluble constituent 
in Hawaiian soils. 



81 



Coming -to the relative amounts of iron and alumina 
in the two types of soils, we note a difference which is 
enormous, and extremely significant. Next to the silica, 
the iron and alumina are the cardinal constituents of 
the normal lavas; and their behaviour during the course 
of disintegration, w^ith their relative proportions 
ultimately found in the soils, are data which furnish the 
most definite instruction. In the "dark red soils" the 
iron oxide is 29.784%; in the "yellow and light red soils" 
it is 43.116%, an actual difference of 44.7%. In the mat- 
ter of the alumina we find as significant a difference, but 
in the opposite direction. The dark red soils contain 
26.944%, and the light soils 18.337%, an actual difference 
of 47.0%. Before discussing the differences in composi- 
tion of the two types of soils further, it will be well to 
bring the comi^ositions of the soils into comparison with 
the analyses of the lavas from which, we have explained, 
the dark red, and yellow and light red, soils are respec> 
tively derived. In these comparisons are given only the 
more dominant constituents — silica, iron, alumina, and 
lime, and these are presented on the basis of mineral 
matter, free from moisture and combustible matter. 

COMPARISON OF LAVAS AND SOILS. 



Materials. 



SiO, 



Per 
cent. 



A.— Normal Lavas fSolid^ 47.59 

Normal Lavas (Weathering) [40.35 

Dark Red Soils 31.45 



B. 



-Tufa Lavas 

Yellow and Light Red Soils 



32.84 
23.63 



Fe,0.. 



Per 
cent. 

15.02 
20.52 

29.78 

33.92 
43.11 



AloOs CaO 



Per 1 
cent. 

19.92 
25.23 
26.94 

29.11 
18.33 



Per 
cent. 

8.88 
8.11 
0.57 

1.74 
0.37 



82 



In the passing over of the solid normal lavas, throiii;h 
the state of "weathering/' into the dark red soils, is 
noted a most p'adual ehani>e in tlie relations of the 
elements to each other. In the weathered specimens the 
relation of iron and alnmina to each other is the same aft 
in the solid lavas; and although the alnmina has been, 
in part, removed and the iron has accumulated, in the 
course of the final resolution of the lavas into soils, the 
relation of the two chief constituent elements has been, 
visibly maintained. 

In the tufa lavas it is seen that a most violent dis- 
turbance of the relations of the elements was effected, 
and largely before the action of weathering began. As 
these lavas passed finally into soils, the relation between 
the iron and alumina underwent a change that complete- 
ly reversed the quantitative proportions of those elements 
as they existed in the original lavas. This change has 
also removed the ground of comparison, and rendered the 
yellow and light red soils extremely dissimilar in texture, 
color, and composition to the dark red soils derived from 
the normal lavas. We do not lay great stress upon the 
differences in lime and other soluble elements between 
the two types of soils, since climatic conditions, to which 
we shall presently refer, have had a great determining 
bearing upon the pro])()rtions of those elements left in 
the soils. It has been found, however, that in instances 
where yellow and dark red soils have been formed near 
together, and the rainfall essentially the same, the dark 
red contain, uniformly, more than doubh' the amount 
of lime found in the yellow soils, and it was also found 
that in the yellow soils the largest proportion of the 
lime was contained in siliceous combinations in the "in- 



83 



soluble residue," and only recorded by the "absolute 
analysis." 

We have, in previous paragraphs, dwelt upon the sul- 
phuric acid as an indicator of the mode of disintegration, 
and of the formation of soils. Like lime and the alkalies, 
this acid is readily removed by rain when in combina^ 
tion with the bases named, and is thus found in least 
quantity where the rainfall is the greatest. The upland 
soils contain 0.166%, and the lowlands 0.210%, of sul- 
phuric acid. The "dark red soils," which have been 
formed in dry conditions, contain 0.332%, and the "yellow 
and light red soils" 0.140% of sulphuric acid. If we 
leave the general averages, and note the variations in 
sulphuric acid in some soils of the same locality, where 
the rainfall is the same, a new set of indications present 
themselves. In the following data is found the measure 
of variation in the soils of localities, where the variation 
cannot be due to superficial causes such as rainfall. 



Localities, 



Heeia, Island of Oahu 

Honohihi. Island of Oahu 

Hilo, Island of Hawaii 

Ookala, Island of Hawaii 

Mean of 820 Soils of America and 
England 



Minimum S O, in Soil 



Per cent. 
0.050 

0.050 
0.210 
0.120 



Maximum S O3 in Soil 

Per cent. 
0.828 
0.650 
1 290 
0.450 



0.04 Per cent. 



In the cases where a high content of sulphuric acid has 
been found, it appears largely in combination with fer- 
rous iron, causing conditions inimical to plant growth, 
which we shall speak of again. These high amounts of 
sulphuric acid have, so far, only been found in soils where 
great volcanic activity, and special vapor action on the 



84 



lavas, liave transpired. The small amounts of the acid 
found in soils within the same locality, and not half a 
mile apart, is to be accounted for, we believe, by the 
circumstance that we have already explained, viz: — 
"there are areas, contiguous to such as have been acted 
upon b^^ sulphurous steam, where no traces of steam 
action are evident." 

"Poisoned Spots."— In addition to the typical differ- 
ences in the soils, which have been traced to the different 
lavas from which they have been derived, there are yet 
other variations. Within broad areas where the soils 
have been derived from solid rocks by weathering, places 
or patches are found which appear, and behave quite 
differently from the surrounding land. Hardly anything 
will grow on some of these patches, and the^^ are called 
"poisoned spots." In some districts upon an area of 
1500 acres, patches summing up to eighty or one hundred 
acres may be found. We are persuaded that these 
poisoned spots were caused by the action of sulphurous 
steam upon the solid lavas after their emission from the 
crater. We are led to this view by what is observed to- 
day at Kilauea over the area of the crater floor, and 
which we have described in earlier paragraphs. At the 
active crater we noticed the action of the acid steam in 
changing the appearance and composition of the lava. 
We also noticed an accumulation of sulphuric acid in 
the altered lava, it having increased to three times the 
amount found in the lava where no steam action was 
proceeding. In comparison, these "poisoned spots" in 
the fields present a color appearance Avhich not only 
causes them to resemble the steamed patches on the 
crater floor, but distinguishes them from the land around. 
The poisoned spots are most numerous in districts on 



85 



Hawaii, biit tliej are also found on all the islands. On 
Kauai, in the district of Makaweli, the superb breadths 
of "deep red soil" are spotted with these patches, which 
are yelloAV to light red in color, and from one-half of an 
acre to more in dimension. Near to the old crater, which 
is now used as a large reservoir, these yellow colored 
spots are very acutely defined. Samples of the soil 
were taken from three of these poisoned spots, two 
from Hawaii, and one from Oahu, in each one of which 
the sulphuric acid was above 1.0^/c, and the average of 
the acid in the three soils was 1.33%. These data leave 
us almost without doubt that in the origin of those 
"poisoned spots" sulphurous steam was one of the potent 
factors. 

We now present an example of a soil, of a gray-yellow 
color, in which the cause of color is not so evident as is 
the case with the yellow and light red soils generally. 
At Makaweli there is a breadth of land known as the 
"yellow ridge" Avhich runs through a broad area of dark 
red soil, but is most acutely defined from the latter. 
This "yellow ridge" is a narrow strip running down 
through the main area of dark red soils which distinguish 
the locality. The lava which formed the yellow ridge 
was a later and distinct flow, but it came from the crater 
from whence the lavas forming the dark red soils came. 
Samples of the lava, in a state of weathering, which i» 
forming the dark red soil, and also of the lava forming 
the yellow soil, were taken. The one lava, on its weather- 
ed surfaces, is already deep red; the other lava a dull 
yellow. The analyses of these two lavas gave as follows: 



86 



\ 

Lavas- 


Com 
billed 
water 

Per 
cent 

4.85 
7.58 


SiOa 


FeO 


Fe^Oa 


ALO;, 


CaO 


Red Colored 

Yellow Colored 


Per 
cen'. 

32.00 
3332 


Per 
cent. 

380 
2.81 


Per 
cent- 

14.78 
16.04 


Per 
cent. 

13.76 
13.23 


Per 
cent. 

8.73 
9.00 



We have said that these hivas "were from the same 
crater," and the analyses say that, in clieniical compo^ 
sition, they are intrinsically identical. Yet the one is 
red and the other yellow! We note that the yellow con- 
tains nearly double the amount of combined water, and 
its iron is more advanced in oxydation, than is the case 
with the red lava, which is older than the yellow lava. 
These are the only marks of difference; but they are the 
peculiar marks of difference that would result from the 
action of steam at the time of, or after ejection. That 
steam acted upon the lavas after emission in this locality 
is shown by the "poisoned spots" in tlie red soils near by. 
But there is no excess of sulphuric acid in the yellow 
lava, or its soil, to indicate the past action of sulphurous 
steam. We remember, however, that at the Kilauea 
crater, at tliis time, neutral steam is escapin**' throunh 
the lavas, and tliat in places where the steam was acidic 
two years ago, it is neutral to-day. These memoranda 
cause us to think that the yellovv' ridge lava, and con- 
sequently the soil, owe their color to the action of neutral 
steam at the time of, or after ejection, and that the prac- 
tically unaltered state of the yellow lava may be due 
to the absence of sulphuric acid in the steam. The soils 
from these lavas are as follows: 



87 



Soils 


Com- 
bined 
water 
etc. 


Fe.O:, 


AI0O3 


OaO 


Nitrogen 


Dark Eed Soil 


Per 
cent. 

11.36 
12.44 


Per 
cent. 

28.73 
26.93 


Per 
cent. 

26.59 
23.53 


Per 
cent 

0.338 
0.160 


Per cent. 
0.171 


Yellow Kidge Soil 


0.165 



The relations of the irou and alnniina indicate a ten^ 
deney in change resembling the differences between the 
red and yellow soils in general. The lime points dis- 
tinctly in that direction. The larger amount of water 
of combination in the yellow soil corresponds with what 
was found in the lava; and the nitrogen content indi- 
cates that the excess of combined water in the yellow 
soil is in the form of mineral hydrates, and does not 
come from any excess of humus or organic matter, an 
indication which is supported by the exact sameness of 
the rainfall under which the dark red and yellow soils, 
in this example, were formed. This example is given 
in order that it shall be understood that there are 
instances of yellow soils whose origin and causes of 
formation are not yet fully understood; and which, with 
our present knowledge, we cannot safely include within 
any type that has been established. 

UPLAND AND LOWLAND SOILS. 



So far, the soils have been considered from the stand- 
point of the lavas, and of the processes of disintegration, 
by which these have been resolved into the materials 
which form the mineral constituents of soils; and as a 
result of the great differences in the soils, due to dis- 
similar causes of disintegration, they have been con- 
sidered under several more or less definite types. 



88 



Soils, liowc'ver, are not merely decomposed rocks: 
They possess the elements which constitute the lavas, 
but t\u'\ contain soinethinii- more. We have seen that 
Hawaiian soils hold as high as 20 per cent, of "combus- 
tible matter," and while some soils have less, others 
contain more than this amount. This combustible mat- 
ter consists, in part, of simple water that has combined 
with the elements of the lavas, in the course of disin- 
tegration, and is driven off by heat, A large part, how^ 
ever, is vegetable matter, and organic substances that 
result from vegetable decay. These vegetable materials, 
as our studies of the lavas have shown, are not found in 
essential rocks, and the elements that form these mate- 
rials are seldom found in rocks, excepting such as are of 
organic origin. Carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen 
are the elements which bear the burthen of all vegetable 
structure. Carbon and nitrogen were primarily derived 
from the air, as they are being obtained from that sphere 
to-day. Hydrogen and oxygen, in addition to taking- 
part as individual elements in the structure of plants, 
combined in the form of water they not only assist in 
conveying other elements from the air to the soil, but, 
as water, they are absolutely essential to the life and 
growth of plants, and out of all proportion to the actual 
amounts that take \)i\vt in ])lant structure. Scientists 
have already shoAvn how many tons of water have to be 
absorbed and evaporated in order to produce one ton of 
wheat, barley, oats, etc.; and we have just determined 
the weight of water used by the sugar cane, during a 
j)eriod of several months, in the making of one pound 
of its own substance, and that weight is enormous I 
These examples are not necessary however, to prove 
what is said: We need merely consider the great 



89 



deserts, oii the one hand, and on the other, the vast 
areas of vegetable luxuriance over the face of the earth, 
and it is at once apparent that vegetation and rainfall 
are concomitant conditions. 

As the combustible organic matter in soils results 
from vegetable decay, and the amount of vegetation ia 
proportional to the rainfall, it then appears that humid 
soils, or those formed under great rainfall, should con- 
tain more organic matter than soils formed in arid con> 
ditions, and under a minimum rainfall. Further, as 
nitrogen is a constant, and only slightly variable factor 
in the organic matter, the nitrogen content of soils in 
regions of great rainfall should be uniformly higher than 
in the soils of dry districts. On the other hand, and in 
acute distinction from the element nitrogen, which is 
brought to the soil as a direct and indirect result of rain- 
fall, the several mineral elements of the soil, such as 
silica, alumina, lime, etc., which were originally there, 
and which can be taken away by water, are liable to be 
the lowest where the rainfall is the greatest, and the 
highest where precipitation is least. 

In view of these considerations, the agricultural anal- 
yses of our soils during the past three years were resolv- 
ed into the two classes — "upland" and "lowland" soils. 
These analyses have covered something over 1,300 sub- 
samples, in the most of which only the lime, potash, phos- 
phoric acid, and nitrogen were determined. In all cases 
the samples were taken personally by the writer, or in 
fields, and by methods, stated by him. By "lowlands" 
is meant the land areas which run from the sea to an 
elevation of about 500 feet, and by "upland," the upper 
cultivated areas, which rise to about 1,500 feet. The appli- 
cation of these terms, however, is controlled by the dis- 



90 



trict: For example, iu parts of Hamakua the lowlands 
commence upon bluffs that stand 200 feet or more above 
the sea; whilst in llih* the rainfall is so <ireat at the sea- 
level that a division into "u])lan(ls" and "lowlands/' 
based on rainfall, cannot obtain. 

We now f>ive a brief summary of our tindiniis during 
the past three years, which have already been discussed 
and publislicd in some detail. The data represent the 
"lowlands'' and "uplands" of Oahn, Mani, parts of Ha- 
waii, and Kauai, and distinguish more or less acutely 
between areas of small and greater rainfall. 



Soils. 


Lime. 


Potash. 


Phosphoric 
Acid. 


Nitrogen. 


Uplands 

Lowlands 


Per cent. 
0.331 
0.471 


Per cent 

0.297 
0.328 


Per cent. 

238 
0.213 


Per cent. 
0.465 

195 







These data represent the average of virgin and crop- 
ped soils on the "upland" and "lowland" areas. The 
lime contents in the respective soils support, without anv 
question, the original hypothesis "that the lime, etc., 
would be liable to be the lowest where the rainfall waa 
the greatest." In the matter of organic matter and 
nitrogen onr findings are still more emphatic in pro- 
nouncing that "vegetation, nitrogen and rainfall are 
concomitant conditions." We can go one step farther 
for illustration of this relation of the nitrogen content 
of the soil to the rainfall: Upon all the four Islands 
most enterprising efforts are being made to extend the 
coffee production. The lands suited to coffee growth are 
at the elevation where it ceases to be ])rofitable to grow 
sugar, or from 1000 to 2000 feet above the sea level. We 
have analyzed soils from some of these lands, and have 



91 



obtained analyses made by other chemists, covering the 
coffee districts on Hawaii, and prospective coffee lands 
on ]Maui. The nitrogen in these thirteen coffee soils we 
compare with the nitrogen contents of the cane lands. 



Soils 


Approximate 

Mean 

Elevation. 


Approximate 

Mean 

Rainfall. 


Nitrog-en in Soil. 


Lowland Caue Soils 

Upland Caue Soils 

Coffee Soils 


Feet 

300 

900 

1,800 


Inches 
50 

90 
130 


Per cent. 
0.195 
0.465 

1.237 







We are indebted to the Government records for the 
"approximate mean rainfalls," and to our own observa^ 
tions in given districts. In one of the districts on Maui, 
a series of rain gauges placed at intervals up the moun^ 
tain side, from 200 feet to 3000 feet, gave an annual rain- 
fall of 28 inches at 200 feet elevation; 60 inches at 900 
feet; and 179 inches at 2800 feet. In the Nuuanu valley, 
Oahu, the rainfall at sea level is near 30 inches, and at 
900 feet it is 118 inches. 

On account of given questions and difficulties bearing 
upon the maintenance of fertility of the upland soils, as 
compared with the lowland soils, a very exhaustive seriea 
of experiments was undertaken in order to try to obtain 
precise data concerning the "availability of the elements, 
of plant food in the upland and lowland soils," the results 
of which will be set forth in the second part of this pub- 
lication. The soils used in these experiments were, in 
the first place, subjected to exhaustive analysis in order 
to be able to note to what extent any differences in be- 
haviour of the upland and lowland soils, under the action 
of solvents used, would appear to be due to fundamental 
or structural differences in their composition. These 



92 



analyses we introduce at this place on account of their 
special bearing also upon the question of the relation of 
rainfall to the organic matter and nitrogen content of 
soils. The analyses include and represent the average of 
nine type samples and 108 sub-sam])les of upland soils, 
and of the same number of t3'pe and sub-samples of low- 
land soils. As already remarked, the samples were either- 
taken by the writer, or under his (liv(M't instructions. 
Districts of the four islands are end)raced, and the 
climatic conditions and length of time that the lands have 
been under cultivation, have been carefully recorded. 
The results of the analyses are as follows: 

LOWLAND SOILS. 



Constituent 
Elements. 



Insoluble Matter, 
Moisture 



Combustible Matter 
Si 0-2 (insoluble). . . . 

Si 0-2 soluble) 

Ti O2 

P'^05 

SO3 

00-2 

Fe2 O3 

Al. O3 

Ca O 

Mg O 

Mn3 04 

K2 O 

Na-iO 



Agricultural 
Analysis. 



Per cent. 

35.150 

9.031 

15.460 



1.780 
396 
0.234 
0.290 
19 980 
16 155 
390 
0.802 
0.187 
0.286 
0.355 



99.681 



Insoluble 
Residue. 



Insoluble 
in HCl. 



Per cent. 



27.440 

35.000 

8.060 

0.770 



8 290 

14 980 

1 090 

1 250 



0.890 
2 510 



100.280 



Absolute Analysis. 



Water-free 
Soil. 



Per cent. 

16.804 

10.290 

13 391 

5 070 

724 
0.175 
0.202 

25.150 

23 539 

0.851 

1 349 
0.124 

650 

1 344 



99.663 



Mineral 
Matter. 



Per cent 



12.569 

16 049 

6 190 

870 

210 



30 220 

28 292 

1.022 

1.621 

148 
0.781 

1 615 



99.587 



Acidic Elements in the Soils - 35 888 Per cent 

Basic ■ '• " 63 689 

Total Nitrogen in the Soils (' 291 

Soluble in 3 per cent K O H, in 30 hours - 0.204 
Insoluble " " " 087 



93 



UPLAND SOILS. 



Constitue t 
Elements. 


Agricultural 
Analysis. 


Insoluble 
Residue. 


Absolute 


Analysis. 


Insoluble Matter 


Per cent. 

27.870 
12.290 

20.600 


Insoluble 
in UCl. 


Water-free 

Soil. 


Mineral 
Matter. 


Combustible Matter 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 
23 300 

10 674 
9.903 
5 192 
869 
0.128 
030 
26 174 
20.059 

640 
0.945 
0.153 
0.710 

1 280 


Per cent. 


SiO'2 (insoluble) 


33.450 

31 230 
9.630 
1.050 


14.068 


Si 0-2 (soluble^ . . 




13 042 


Ti02 


1 840 
0.470 
157 
030 
21 810 
13 621 
294 
610 
187 
0.272 
391 


6.739 


P.2 O5 


1,132 


S 3 


0.166 


C O2 


"3 740" 
14 640 

0.950 
790 

"1.300"' 
2 630 




Fe2 O3 


34.120 


AI2 O3 


26 152 


Ca 

Mg 


0.834 
1 193 


Mns O4 

K-i 


0.200 
0.925 


Na2 


1.668 








99 953 


99.410 


100.057 


100.087 



Acidic Elements in tbe Soils = 35 . 147 Per cent. 

Basic " " " =64 940 

Total Nitrogen in the Soils = 490 

0.347 
0.143 



Soluble in 3 per cent. K O H, in 30 hours 
Insoluble " " 



It is uuderstood that these analyses are of soils derived 
from the same lavas and lava flows; so that any dif- 
ferences indicate the measure of the action of climatic 
conditions, the upland soils showing the effects of greater 
rainfall. 

Ver}^ noteworthy is the difference in the relative pro- 
portions of soluble and insoluble silica. In the upland 
soils the insoluble is the greater, whilst in the lowland 
the soluble silica has accumulated. The enormous 
amount of soluble silica in all the soils will be spoken 
of again. A notably greater increase of iron is seen in 
the upland soils, with a reduction of the alumina. In 
the lowlands, the lime is appreciably higher than in the 



94 



uplands, whilst llic iihosplioiic ncid is just liic reverse. 
But from the analyses it would not appear that there is 
a difference that could seriously affect the fertility, since 
the upland soils contain an ample total amount of the 
elements of fertility for an indefinite length of time. The 
question, however, which concerns the immediate crop 
is not the total, but the (iraihihlr amount of the elements 
indispensable to fertility. In the second part of this work 
the relative state of availability of the elements in the 
upland and lowland soils will be fully considered. 
Finally, it is noticed that, in respect of the combustible 
organic matter and the nitrogen contents of the upland 
and loAvland soils, these tables of analyses fully support 
the data already furnished in showing that these soil 
constituents are in proportion relative to the rainfall. 

The nature of the nitrogen compounds in the soil will 
not be considered in detail at this time. So far, the data 
show that 70.4% of the total nitrogen in the soil is solu- 
ble in a 3% cold solution of potassic hydrate, under an 
action of 30 hours duration. Concerning the iratcr- 
soliihlc nitrogen, it is indicated that this is largely in the 
form of amido-acids. Qualitative tests, in which the soil 
was digested for 30 hours at a temperature of 4.") degrees 
centigrade, and the solution treated with mercuric nit- 
rate, gave ample indications of amido bodies being 
present. This mattei- is of signal importance on account 
of its bearing u]»on the question as to the form (»f the 
nitrog(Mi in which i>lants, growing in acid soils, take up 
their nitrogen, a (juestion to which we have already re- 
ferred, and to which we shall recur. 

In presenting our observations ujxtn the relation of 
rainfall to the oi-ganic matter and nitrogen in soils, we 
have to call attention to the fact that other observers 



95 



have reaehed conclusions of a directly opposite nature. 
Professor Hilgard ("Kelatious of Soil to Climate") fur« 
nislies data showing that the "humid soils" in the United 
States contain less organic matter than the "arid soils." 
His conclusions result from the averaging of not less than 
779 soils, and, on account of the reputation of the author, 
require a very careful attention. 

In recapitulating the conclusions set forth in the pre- 
vious paragraphs we have, with the aid of our present 
knowledge, been led to consider the types of Hawaiian 
soils as follows: 

A. — Geoloijivnl ( la-ssificafion. 

1. Dark Eed Soils. — Soils formed by the simple 
weathering of normal lavas, in climatic conditions of 
great heat and dryness. 

2. Yellow and Light Red Soils. — Soils derived from 
lavas that underwent great alteration, under the action 
of steam and sulphurous vapors, at the time of, or after 
emission from the craters. 

3. Sediimentary Soils. — Soils derived from the decom- 
position of lavas at higher altitudes, and the removal 
and deposition by rainfall at lower levels. 

It has already been said that there are soils which 
can not with certainty be placed under any one of these 
three types. 

B. — Climatic Classification. 

1. Upland Soils. — Soils formed under lower tempera- 
ture and greater rainfall, and distinguished by a large 
content of organic matter and nitrogen, and by a lo^v 
content of the elements of plant food in an available 
state; these elements having been removed by rainfall. 



96 



2. Lowland Soils. — Soils formed under biglier temper- 
ature and smaller rainfall, and distinguished by a lower 
content of organic matter and nitrogen, and by a higher 
content of the elements of plant food in a state of imme- 
diate availability, which is due in part to the receipt of 
soluble constituents from the upper lands, and to a 
smaller rainfall over the lower levels, 

RELATIVE FERTILITY OF THE SEVERAL TYPES 

OF SOILS. 

The "dark red soils," found in districts already de- 
scribed, and the "sedimentary soils" are more or less, and 
almost uniformly, fertile soils. 

The "yellow and light red soils" are not marked b}-^ 
anything like the same uniformity in character and 
fertility. Certain of these, when first brought under 
cultivation, produce good crops, but the source of fertility 
is not permanent. When tw^o or more crops have been 
removed the power to produce weakens greatly, and the 
restoration and maintenance of fertility is difficult, 
special treatment being required. Others of these soils, 
marking small or larger areas near the centers of a past 
great volcanic activity and chemical action on the lavas, 
from the first are not productive. In three special loca- 
tions the managers of ])lautatious have respectively said 
to the writer "the cane will not grow in tliis bright red 
soil." "Wherever that light red soil is mixed in with 
the other the land is poisoned." Further, "when the 
cane roots strike that (dd brown-yellow stuff they turn 
up and will not face it." Now, in each of the soils from 
the three locations quoted we have found more than 1.0 
per cent, of sulphuric acid, Avhich is in combination with 



97 



tlie low oxide of iron, tlins producing a compound actual- 
ly poisonous to plant life. 

We had suspected the presence of these poisonous, 
iron comj)ounds, and the special examinations have con- 
firmed the supposition. Knowing, however, what certain 
of the fundamental reasons of non-productiveness are, 
we shall now be able to grapple with the trouble, and, 
in time, neutralize the causes of sterility. 

In order to furnish a more definite idea of the relative 
productiveness of the different types of soils, we shall 
present certain data now in our hands. We shall first 
explain that a system of control is in use by which the 
production of each sugar plantation upon the four islauda 
is known. Each plantation furnishes to the Bureau of 
this experiment station an annual statement, showing 
the number of acres of cane manufactured, and the sugar 
produced. The writer, by reason of the repeated visits 
to each plantation, and his knowledge of the type or types 
of soil on each plantation, has been able to arrange the 
soils of each plantation under their proper types, and to 
attach to each its actual production. In the following 
table are included data only from plantations where 
soils of a definite type or types are found, and where 
the conditions of water-supply and temperature are com^ 
paratively uniform. Great variations in these physical 
conditions could upset any comparison based upon 
variations in the types of soils. The data are not a state- 
nient of one crop, but represent the average of the past 
three years, and are therefore free from any incidental 
deviations from the mean. The data bearing upon the 
three types of soil are as follows: 



98 



Types of Soils. 



Dark Red Soils 

Yellow aud Light Red Soils 
■Sedimentary Soils 



Approximate 
^o. of Acres. 



30,000 
32,000 
20,000 



Yield of Sugar 
Per Acre. 



10,411 lbs. 

6,291 " 

10,301 " 



The cane crop on these ishiuds, aUowing for the time 
of prepariuj;' the i'round before phmtiug, is two years 
iu production, and two crops are always in course of 
grow^tli at tlie same time. The "approximate number of 
acres" given allows for this consideration, w^hich implies 
double the area required by the crop taken off in any one 
year. The land areas not embraced iu this table would 
fall chiefly under the type of the "yellow and light red 
soils" Avere it possible to include them. It is seen that 
the "dark red" and "sedimentary" soils are vastly more 
productive than the "yellow and light red" soils. One 
feature in favor of the latter is the circumstance that 
whilst they produce much less in quantity, the quality, 
taking the cane crop ag an example, is distinctly higher. 
This is exemplified by the following table, wiiich gives 
the production of certain sedimentary and yellow soils 
from several districts. 



Soils. 


Tons of Cane 
Per Acre. 


Purity of 

the Cane 

Juice. 


Tons of Su- 
gar per 
Acre. 


Tons of Cane 

to One Ton 

of Sugar. 


Sedimentary Soils 


47.80 
23.60 


Per cent. 

84.2 
90 5 


5.11 
3.08 


9 1 


Yellow or light Red Soils. . 


8.1 



In each example used in this comparison the sedimen- 
tary and yellow soils are upon the same plantation; con- 
sequently the manufacturing data are strictly compara- 
tive, the same mill and mode of treatment being used 



99 



upon the- cane from the two kinds of soils. Neverthe- 
less, it is apparent that the different types of soil vary 
greatly in economic productiveness. The yellow and 
li*»ht red soils, by special treatment, can doubtless be 
increased in fertilit}^ They cannot, however, in our 
opinion, be made equally productive with the other types. 
But for the good management, and very conspicuouf»» 
economy practiced upon certain plantations where the 
yellow and light red soils predominate their position 
would be other than it is to-day. 

Comparison of Hawaiian and American Soils. — At the 
close of the examination of the Hawaiian lavas, we 
brought these into comparison with the kinds of rocks 
found in North America. It will now be of interest and 
value to compare the soils derived from the American 
rocks with the soils of these islands, which we have dis- 
cussed. A great geological interest will be found in 
this comparison, and its importance will consist in enabl- 
ing us to grasp the significance of striking variations, 
and in guarding us against applying conclusions drawn 
from the study of given soils, formed under their own 
characteristic conditions, to other absolutely different 
types of soils, which have resulted from rocks and con- 
ditions of quite dissimilar kinds. 

For the purpose of the comparison, we have examined 
the soil analyses published by the several experiment 
stations of the United States, and have received copies 
of analyses made by the laboratory of the United States 
Department of Agriculture, Washington, under the 
direction of Dr. H. W. Wiley, through whose courtesy 
they have been placed at our disposition. Accompanying 
the analyses. Dr. Wiley writes "unfortunately a large 
part of the soil analyses available have been made accord- 



100 



ing to different methods, and are not comparable. I send 
you the analyses of twenty different soils which were 
made in this laboratory by the same method." These 
analyses furnished by Dr. Wiley were the usual "agricul* 
tural analyses," and therefore did not furnish data for a 
geological comparison with the "absolute anal^^ses" 
made of Hawaiian soils. 

In the absence of data corresponding to our purpose 
we sent to thirty experiment stations in the United 
States asking for small samples of soil from the experi- 
ment fields to be sent to us. Most of the stations respond- 
ed to our request, including the States of Rhode Island, 
New Hampshire, Maine, New Jersey, Michigan, Illinois, 
Indiana, Ohio, Wisconsin, Kentucky, North Carolina, 
Missouri, Tennessee, Texas, Nebraska, Iowa, Minnesota, 
North Dakota, Idaho, Washington. Samples from otheT 
States were received, but too late for use in the examina^ 
tion. It is thus seen that the greater part of the soils 
received are, geologically, very largely representative of 
the American regions of glacial action and "drift" form- 
ation; and further, that they are mainly derived from 
rocks, whose origin was anterior to the laying down of 
the carboniferous formations, admixed with others, ovei> 
given areas, which had a volcanic origin. It is in nowise 
claimed that these represent fully American soils. 

As only an average composition of these American 
soils was required, one sample Avas made up by taking 
an equal weight of each sample received from the twenty 
States; the samples, instead of the results of separate 
analyses, being averaged. The analyses were made pre- 
cisely the same as those of the Hawaiian soils. The re« 
suits are as follows: 



101 



■ COMPOSITION OF AMERICAN SOILS. 



Constituent 
Elements. 



Insoluble Matter 
Moi-ture 



Combustible Matter . . 
Si O2 (insoluble) . . . . 

Si O2 (soluble) 

P'iO-S 

S O3 

C 0-2 

Fe. AI2 Oe 

Ca O 

Mg O 

Mns O4 

K-2 O 

Na..2 



Agricultural 
Analysis. 



Per cent. 

84.890 
1.950 

5.077 



0.192 
0.072 
0.035 
6.230 
0.255 
0.354 
0.260 
0.237 
0.213 



99.762 



Insoluble 
Residue. 



Insoluble 
in H CI. 



Per cent. 



79.540 

8.580 
0.200 



7.200 
0.610 
0.440 



1.500 
2.200 



100.270 



Absolute Analysis . 



Water-free 
Soil. 



Per cent. 

5.180 
69.017 
7.393 
0.343 
0.073 
0.037 
12 561 
0.787 
0.731 
0.265 
1.530 
2.114 



100.031 



Mineral 
Matter 



Per cent. 

'72.697" 
7.840 
0.361 
0.077 



13 250 
0.830 
0.771 
0.278 
1.622 
2.229 



99 954 



Acidic Elements in the Soil = 81.014 Per cent. 

Basic " " = 18.9S0 

Total Nitrogen in the Soil = 0.219 

Absorptive power of the Soil = 48.4 " 



The statement of analysis puts before us a type of 
soils fundamentally different in structural composition 
from Hawaiian soils. 

In the first place, is noted the relative state of solu- 
bility of the constituents in the two soils, which is set 
forth by the "agricultural analysis." The relative pro- 
portions of the respective soils that were found soluble 
by warm digestion with concentrated hydrochloric acid 
were as follows: 



Soils 


Soluble. 


Insoluble. 


Hawaiian Soils 

American Soils 


Per cent. 

68.894 
15.110 


Per cent. 
31.106 

84.890 



102 



This enorinoiis differeuce in tlio relative proportions of 
the two soils that yield to the solvent action of strong 
hydrochloric acid is due to the fundamental difference 
in structural composition. The American soils are high- 
ly acidic, and the Hawaiian ultra-basic in constitution, 
which is shown by the following comparison: 



Soils. 



Basic 
Constituents. 



Hawaiian Soils. 
American Soils. 



Per cent. 

63.717 
18.980 



j Acidic 

Constituents. 

Per cent. 
36.458 

81.014 



A more extreme difference in the fundamental strvic- 
ture of soils than is set forth by these data is not con- 
ceivable. The comparatively small action of strong 
hydrochloric acid upon the American soils is amply ex- 
plained. The proportion of bases in those soils is 18.98%, 
or less than one-fifth of the total mineral matter; whilst 
the proportion of the mineral matter soluble in the strong 
acid was 16.25%. The nature of the great variation in 
the proportions of bases in the soils of the United States 
and of these Islands is set forth by the following com- 
parison : 



Soils. 


Fe, Ah Oe 


CaO 


Mg 


KjO 


Na^ 


Hawaiian Soils 

American Soils 


Per cent. 

59.240 
13.250 


Per cent. 

698 
0.830 


Per cent. 

1.242 
0.771 


Per cent. 

737 
1.622 


Per cent. 

1.420 
2.229 







These data require very little immediate comment. 
It is shown that the cardinal difference lies in the relative 
contents of iron and alumina. Concerning the lime and 



103 



magnesia it is less important to note the similarity in 
amounts than to remember the notable difference in the 
state of solubility in the respective soils. The compara- 
tive amounts of potash and soda in the American soils 
indicate matters of geological interest, as well as of 
agricultural moment, to which we shall recur. 

The small proportion of basic elements in the Amer- 
ican, as distinguished from Hawaiian soils, involves a 
high content of acidic constituents, the bulk of which 
is composed of silicic acid, or silica. In drawing a com- 
parison between American and Hawaiian soils we note 
not only the relative difference in total amounts, but 
also in the proportions of "soluble" and "insoluble" 
silica, and this latter difference has a very profound 
agricultural and geological significance. The following 
figures give the relative amounts of soluble and insolu^ 
ble silica. 



Soils. 


Soluble Silica. 


Insoluble Silica. 


Hawaiian Soils 

American Soils 


Per cent. 

15.308 
7.840 


Per cent. 

12.619 

72.697 



The mineral matter of the American soils contains no 
less than 80.537% of silica, only 7.840% of which is asso- 
ciated with bases that are soluble in strong hydrochloric 
acid. The total silica found in the average of more than 
1300 sub-samples of Hawaiian soils is merely 27.927%. 
And of these 27.927 parts, only 12.619, or actually U% 
of the total silica, are insoluble; the greater part being 
combined with the bases, and is set free by the action of 
the strong hydrochloric acid. Tlie soluble silica in the 



104 



H:nv;iiian soils is just (loiiblc tlic aiuoiiut loiiiid in tlu- 
AiiHMican saiu])U's. AjiTiculturally this is in-obably of 
hiji'li iin]toiianco, especially in the matter of the cane 
crop, and of all cereal urowths which incorporate lari>e 
quantities of silica in their conii»osition. This, an<l other 
questions Ave are investiiiatiuji in connection with the 
pliysioloiiical (levelo])nient of the cane, and the a^l(^untJ^ 
of the elements in the soil that arc i)rol)al)ly immediately 
available for ]dant urowtli. 

In addition to the a«;Ticultural siuniticance that the 
different contents of silica may imply, not only these 
differences in the proportions of soluble and insoluble 
silica in American and Hawaiian soils, but the utMieral 
structure, and present composition, of these widely dif- 
ferent tyi>es have for us a hii»h geoloiiical interest and 
value. In the matter of Hawaiian soils we are first inb 
pressed with the low amount of the total siJioi and second- 
ly, with the hiiih proportion of this that is sidnble. Hoth 
these features distiugnish the soils of these islands from 
those of America, and of all ueoloiiically old countries, 
such as Euiiland and Germany, whence, thronuh the 
courtesies of Prof. Maercker, in (Tcrmany, and ^fessrs. 
Lawes and Gilbert, in England, we have received 
numerous analyses. ^lor(M)ver, the total silica found in 
Hawaiian soils is very much less than is found in the 
normal, solid lavas from which they were derived. In a 
com]>arison of the silica, we also repeat the statement of 
the iron and alumina in tlu^ lavas and soils. 



Materials. 


Si Oa 


Fe2 O3 


Al, 0, 


Hawaiian Lavas 

Hawaiiau Soils 


Per cent. 

47.590 
27.927 


Per cent. 
15.02 

36.44 


Per cent. 
19.92 

22.63 



105 



It is thus seen that the soils contaiu 41.39;^, less silica 
than the lavas; and we have aln^ady seen that of the 
total silica still foiuid in the soils, 56.0% is "soluble 
silica." We have already said that these features distin 
guish Hawaiian soils from those of geologically older 
countries, and particularly those of America that we 
have submitted to an absolute analysis. 

Ileturning to American soils, it is not i)ossible, even 
with an approximation to accuracy, to submit these to a 
comparison witli the rocks froni which they have been 
derived, in the jjrecise mode followed with Hawaiian 
soils. There are regions in the United States where a 
true geological study of the soils may be made in con- 
nection with an examination of the rocks from which 
the soils actually came. And in the Western States, 
more especially where volcanic rocks (which Clarke and 
Hillebrand have shown to be normal basalts) have cov- 
ered notable areas, it may be possible to find relations 
of lavas and soils which, although now older, were 
primarily identical with the relations on these islands. 
We merely suggest that it may be ijossible. 

The American soils composing the collective sample 
that we are using in this comparison, it has already been 
said, are chiefly from regions where the rock formations 
are anterior to the carboniferous age, which is illustrated 
by a geological majj of the United States. These early 
formations fall under the grand divisions of Archaen, 
Silurian, and Devonian rocks, those of the latter two ages 
comprising the vaster portion of the areas represented. 
The Archaean formations include granitic, hornblendic, 
feldspathic and calcareous rocks, and also rocks rich in 
iron, and locally in titanic acid. The low^er and upper 
Silurians embrace sandstones, siliceous slates, claystf)nea 



106 



and shnlos; and also limestones on a larije scale. The 
lower Devonian rocks, according- to Dana, "represent the 
great limestone making- period of the age in America, 
whilst the later Devonian formations are mostly shalea 
or sandstones." These formations rnn on also into those 
of the snb-carboniferons period, during- which the initial 
work was begun in laying down the formations that mark 
the carboniferous age. 

In the selections that we have made from the superb 
series of analyses of American rocks made by Messrs. 
Clarke and Hillebrand, U. S. Geological Survey, which 
may well be used by agricultural chemists in America a» 
indicating the nature of a primary basis for an actually 
scientific study of soils in the United States, are found 
examples of the composition of most of the rocks which 
comprise the formations of the early geologic ages that 
have been named. The authors, however, would not 
claim that those analyses are adequate to enable us to 
estimate the mean composition of the rock masses which 
compose the surface formations covering the areas of 
the vast regions from which the soils were taken. The 
composition of the several kinds of rocks is furnished by 
these analyses; but the relative geographical areas that 
are occupied by the respective formations are not known, 
and without these anything of the nature of an approxi- 
mate average cannot be attained. Nevertheless, and 
while the average of the composition of the several kinds 
of American rocks will not furnish us with the knowledge 
that is rccjuired, the data can aid in our present pur])ose; 
so that we shall reproduce the mean of the compositions 
of the rocks by the side of the mineral constituents of the 
American soils . 



107 



Materials 


SiOz 


Fea AI2 Oe 


CaO 


MgO 


Ka 


Na^O 


American Rocks 
American Soils. 


Percent 

53 93 

80.54 


Per cent 

18.81 
13.25 


Per cent. 

9.42 
0.83 


Per cent. 
2.10 

0.77 


Per cent. 

2 31 
1.62 


Per cent. 

1.67 
2.23 



By this comparison we reacli results which are abso^ 
lutely the opposite of the results from comparison of the 
Hawaiian lavas and soils. The Hawaiian soils contain 
27.92 parts less silica than the lavas; whilst the American 
soils contain 2G.G1 parts more silica than the rocks. 
Concerning the chief bases, the Hawaiian soils contain 
24.13 parts more of iron and alumina than the lavas; 
and the American soils 5..56 parts less of these constit- 
uents than the rocks. In the matter of the silica, we 
again allude to the high content of soluble silica in Ha~ 
waiian, and the insoluble state of the silica in American 
soils. 

We have already said that the results of a comparison 
of American soils and rocks do not bear the same weight 
of significance as the comparison of Hawaiian soils and 
lavas, for the reason that we do not know the propor- 
tions of the several kinds of rocks that have gone to the 
forming of the American soils. We do not know that 
their averages of silica amounted to 53.93%. It may 
have been less, but probably was more. It appears quite 
certain, however, that the average of silica in the great 
rock masses did not contain anything like the amount 
of silica found in the American soils derived from those 
rocks. Even the granites contain only 72.0% of silica, 
or 8% less than the soils, and it appears further certain 
that the silica average could not be equal to that of the 
granites when the vast areas of claystones, slates, shales, 
loess, silicates and carbonates of iron, and limestones, 



108 



whose averages result iu 43.3% of silica, are iiu-liuled. 
Again, the iron and alumina found in the American 
soils indicate that formations of the nature of claystones, 
slates and shales have contributed notably to the produc- 
tion of the earths overlying thi^ vast areas traversed by 
glacial drift. Moreover, the rocks that would likely con- 
tribute the most to the formation of the drift soils wouhl 
be such as yielded more easily to the glacial action, and 
the siliceous sandstones, which contain less silica than 
similar residual products of rock disintegration on these 
Islands, and the granites would not be of that order. 
In brief, the indications are that those collective rock 
formations contained notably less silica than is found 
in the soils that have been derived from them, but we 
bear in mind that these are, at present, only indications. 
With these extraordinary marks of difference, in the 
structure and chemical composition, between Hawaiian 
and American soils the question naturally follows con^ 
cerning the causes and modes of change from which thia 
fundamental distinction has resulted. The American 
soils are old, and have, comparatively considered, 
reached a state beyond which little further change is 
possible. On the other hand, the soils of these Islands 
are all geologically very recent, and over certain areas 
they are very new, whilst special lava flows occurred so 
short a time ago that the rock cannot yet be said to be 
changed into soil. This youthful state of Hawaiian soils 
provides an excellent possibility of noting not onl}^ the 
causes by which the lavas have been resolved into earths, 
but also indications of the modes and slow processes by 
which soils of a given structural composition and type 
may undergo intrinsic change and pass over into soils 
of another type, having a totally different composition. 



109 



In the first place we shall repeat the comparison of 
Hawaiian lavas and soils. 



Materials. 


Si O2 


Fe, 0, 


AI2O3 


Ca 


MgO 


K2 


NaaO 


Hawaiian Lavas 
Hawaiian Soils. 


Per 
cent. 

47.90 

27.92 


Per 
cent. 

13.36 
36.44 


Per 
cent 

18.23 
22.63 


Per 
cent. 

8.99 
0.69 


Per 
cent. 

6.05 
1.24 


Per 
cent . 

1.50 

0.74 


Per 
cent 

2.20 

1.42 



This statement of lavas is based upon the inclusion of 
moisture and combined water; in other statements of 
the same lavas the water is excluded, in order to com- 
pare with other water-free materials. These data rep- 
resent the enormous change in the relative proportions 
of the elements in the course of passage from lava to 
soil. This change took place slowly, which is shown by 
the previous statement on the ^-weathering lavas;" and 
the soils are still in a state of change, which it is possible 
to illustrate. Of the total silica still in the soils, it has 
already been shown that 56% is "soluble silica,'- and 
liable to gradual removal. That it is being removed ia 
shown by an examination of the composition of the dis- 
charge waters leaving the four large islands, that is given 
in the second part of this work, in which it is seen that 
the silica contained in the waters is twice as great as 
either the lime or magnesia; five times greater than the 
potash; five times greater than the combined iron and 
alumina, and only equalled by the soda. Whether this 
soluble silica exists in the free state in the soils in part, 
or is wholly combined with the bases, has not yet been 
determined; but there are indications that the silicates 
of iron and alumina are slowly disintegrating, the silica 



110 



being carritMl away, and, especially the iron as gradually 
aggregating. 

In the matter of the removal of the bases it is seen that 
the lime has gone with the greatest facility — the element 
that is most vital when we come to the relations of the 
soil to plant life. Of the alkalies, soda has been the 
most resistant. It is remembered, however, that the 
most of the soda is bound up in the "insoluble residue," 
having resisted the solvent action of tlie concentrated 
hydrochloric acid. This behaviour of the soda, suggests 
a link of relationship betw^een the Hawaiian, and the 
old American soils. The alumina is slightly higher in 
the soils than in the lava; yet it has been removed on a 
vast scale. There w^ere five parts more of alumina than 
iron in the lavas; but there are fourteen parts more of 
iron than alumina in the soils. This denotes the relative 
behaviours of these bases in the changes that are trans- 
piring. 

In the course of examination of the different Hawaiian 
soils we have noted a difference, in degree, of behaviour 
of soils formed under dissimilar conditions. Soils deriv> 
ed from tufa lavas, which underwent chemical action 
during the initial stage of disintegration, contain ten 
parts less of total silica, and eight parts less of soluble 
silica, than the soils formed by the weathering of normal 
lavas in dry conditions. Again, the "upland" soils con- 
tain two parts less of total silica, and three parts less of 
soluble silica than the lowland soils. This results, in 
part, from the circumstance that tlie rainfall upon the up- 
lands is double that of the lowlands. It is unquestion- 
ably due also, to the further circumstance that the up- 
lands soils, with the large content of decaying organic 



Ill 



matter, ai:e five and one-half times more acid than the 
lowland soils, which we have carefully observed. 

The agricultural analyses have shown that the soils 
contain an amount of silica that was not disturbed by 
the digestion with strong hj'drochloric acid, and not 
removable from the insoluble residue with alkalies; 
which is understood as "insoluble silica." In the course 
of the advancing disintegration of the soils, and of the 
separation and removal of the soluble silica, the stage in 
the history must be reached when the insoluble silica 
must become an increasing factor, and not only in rela- 
tion to the soluble silica, but as a constituent of the 
whole soil. For it is not only shown that the soluble 
silica is being actually carried aw^ay, there are numerous 
indications that even the iron, which has accumulated 
so enormously in passing over from the lavas into the 
soils, reaches a degree of concentration when it separates 
from the other constituents, and forms layers and con- 
cretions of iron ore. We have, in a former table, given 
four analyses of such concretions, where the separation 
of the iron had been jjrecipitated by chemical action on 
the lavas, the average of which gave 78.41% of iron 
oxide. These concretions we have found on an appre- 
ciable scale on the older Islands of Oahu and Kauai. 
In relation to the stage or time when the "insoluble 
silica" shall begin to assert itself in the composition of 
the soils, it is noted that the upland soils already, not 
only contain more insoluble than soluble silica, but also 
more insoluble silica than the lowland soils. It is here 
suggested that rainfall and acidity are operating along 
the line of a change in the type of the soils. In the con- 
ditions of nature the change must be very slow. 

In another place we have shown that when an one per 



112 



cent, solution of citric acid had acted on a soft lava for 
about fifty days, the lava Avas wholly taken to pieces, 
the bases being chiefly in solution, leaving a residue com- 
posed of insoluble silica and silicates. This disintegra- 
tion with the weak organic acid required fifty days for 
completion. Proceeding from the weak, to the use of 
a strong acid, it is shown by the agricultural analyses 
that the same was accomplished on the soils in ten hours, 
and leaving insoluble residiies containing over 75% of 
insoluble silica and titanic acid. These insoluble residues 
however, comprise only 31.1% of the original soil; so that 
to produce the insoluble residues of their present compo- 
sition, 68.9%) of the more soluble parts of the soil had 
to be removed. We cannot compute how long a time 
might be required by Nature to accomplish what was 
done by the strong hydrochloric acid in ten hours. More- 
over, we do not know that the sum of natural processes 
will be exactly in the same direction, or that they will 
lead to the same results. At this place, however, we call 
attention to the impressive circumstance that when Ha- 
waiian soils are digested with concentrated hydrochloric 
acid, as we have already explained, an "insoluble residue" 
remains which is almost identical in chemical composi- 
tion with the American soils. We bring these into com- 
parison; — the insoluble rc^sidues, all of which are pre- 
served, representing some 1300 sub-samples of Hawaiian 
soils. 



Materials. 


SiO, 


Fe-AKOe 


CaO 


Mg 


K.O 

Per 

cent 

0.70 
1.62 


Na„0 


" Insolulile Kesidues, " Hawaiian 

Soils 

American Soils 


Per 
cent 

76 53 
80.54 


Per 
cent. 

18 66 

13 25 


Per 
cent. 

0.71 
1 83 


Per 
cent. 

0.86 
1.77 


Per 
cent. 

1.64 
2.23 



113 



It is seen that by acting- upon Hawaiian soils with 
strong hydrochloric acid for ten hours, and removing the 
acid soluble constituents, we have an insoluble residue 
left, of the same color and similar composition as the 
American soil, according to the absolute analysis of the 
latter. If the hj^drochloric acid had removed 5% more 
of the alumina and iron, the silica in the insoluble residue 
would have been exactly equal to the amount in the 
American soils. We have previously said, however, that 
a further treatment of the insoluble residue with a fresh 
quantity of the strong acid did not appreciably reduce 
its weight or composition. We have also said that 
we do not know that the natural processes are acting 
exactly along the same line, or will lead to the same 
results as are accomplished by the strong hydrochloric 
acid in ten hours. We have however, furnished such 
natural indications as we have observed, showing that 
the slow action of dilute acids, or more properly speaking 
of acidulated waters, does appear to be moving towards 
the results which are more instantly produced by the 
strong acid. If these results should be eventually 
reached, and the soils of these Islands be converted into 
a type represented by the insoluble residue, and resem- 
bling American soils, the time required to that end will 
be immense; since, as it has been said, no less than 69% 
of the present, more soluble constituents have to be 
separated and removed. 

These considerations bearing on Hawaiian soils lead 
to the question concerning the mode and processes by 
which the American type of drift soils, that we have 
examined, arrived at their jiresent composition? Reasons 
have already been given for deciding that those American 



114 



soils have been derived from rock formations that must, 
in the agj»re<>ate, have contained a much h)wer content 
of silica than is found in th(- soils. In fact there is not 
any order of rocks but the siliceous sandstones that con« 
tains anythin<>- like so much silica as the drift soils that 
we are speaking of. Those sandstones however, are 
essentially separation or residual products of previous 
formations; resembling the residual siliceous productft 
from the disintegration of Hawaiian lavas, that are to 
form future sandstones, and in which our analysis found 
93% of silica, or 5% more than the mean of American 
sandstones. If then the rocks, and also the soils during 
an earlier period in their history, contained less silica 
than is now in the present soils, they must necessarily 
have contained more bases, and the question has already 
been put concerning the j^rocesses by which the soluble 
constituents have been removed, and the soils have reach- 
ed their present composition, with the enormous content 
of silica. We have been specially concerned with the 
mode of formation of Hawaiian soils, and only gen- 
erally interested, and for the value of comparison, 
with American soils. It has appeared to us, how- 
ever, that such American soils as we have examined 
have reached their present composition and character 
by a long history of change that has proceeded by a 
course of processes similar to what has been described. 
We have endeavored to observe some remaining records 
of such processes in soils from special localities. By the 
courtesy of Professor Goodell, of the Amherst Experi- 
ment Station, Mass., we received analyses of soils in the 
Connecticut valley, lying at the feet of Mount Holyoke 
and Mount Tom, that are amongst the grandest results 



115 



of the great eruptions of the Triassic period, and which 
are composed of basalts that, according to Dana, have 
the same composition as the lavas of the Hawaiian 
Islands. Those soils, however, show an average "insolu- 
ble residue" of 85.37%, according to the agricultural 
analyses; which indicates, as we thought probable, that 
the Connecticut valley soils are soils of deposit, and bear 
no necessary relation to the rocks of the immediate local- 
ity; or that they have become so radically altered in type 
as not to resemble, in the least, the basaltic soils of these 
islands. Our inquiries concerning areas in Europe, with 
which we are also familiar, have been just as resultless 
in this respect. Yet we are impressed that there are 
localities in the United States where such records may 
be found in the soils. Were this the place for such a dis- 
cussion, it might be possible to present the most impres- 
sive indications showing that not only have the older 
soils been brought to their present state of composition 
by the processes recounted, but that those changes trans- 
piring in the structure and composition of soils between 
the periods of virginity and old age are only a part and 
continuance of the initial processes of disintegration 
whereby the rocks were resolved into earths. Further, 
that it has been by the removal of the soluble constit- 
uents from soils, resulting in the changes of type, as well 
as from the initial decomposition of rocks, that the 
materials have been derived for the laying down of the 
grand and successive series of formations which form the 
superficial crust of the earth. 

How superficial the crust is that bias undergone con« 
tinual dissolution and deposition in new formations it 
is not possible to say. Of possible interest at this place, 



116 



it is remarli^ed that the specific gravitj' of Hawaiian 
soils has been found to be 2.87, as compared with about 
2.6, tlie specific gravity of certain American soils. The 
specific gravity of the Hawaiian soils, free from com- 
bustible matter, is approximately 3.4; compared with 
the lavas, having a specific gravity of almost exactly 
8.0. It is seen that the specific gravity of the lavas is 
very little greater than that of the natural soils, or than 
the moan specific gravity of tlie surface of the crust of 
the earth. The specific gravity of the earth as a body, 
however, is .5.5. If then, we compare what must be the 
relatively smaller mass of the interior of the earth, hav- 
ing a density so great as to bring the specific gravity of 
the globe up to 5.5, with the greater mass of the exterior 
of low density, it then appears that our lavas must come 
from a depth merely beneath the surface, comparatively 
speaking; and that the locality of their origin may bear 
no relation to the more profound internal depths and con 
ditions of our globe. With such questions, liowever, we 
have nothing to do at this place and time. 

Our considerations, so far, have dealt only with the 
origin and nature of Hawaiian soils. This knowledge 
is preliminary' to any further investigations. We are, 
however, practically concerned with the economic rela 
tion of the soils to plant life and in'oduclion, and this re- 
quires a knowledge, not only of the elements of plant 
food contained in the soils, but also of their condition of 
fitness for use by the growing crops. Consequently we 
have had to look into the state of arailahUiti/ of the essen- 
tial constituents; the results of which furtlier investiga- 
tions will be given in the sccoihI pdrt of this work. 



AVAILABILITY AND LOSS 



OF THE 



ELEMENTS OF PLANT FOOD 



IN 



HAWAIIAN SOILS. 



In the First Part of these investigations attention was 
confined to the "Origin and Nature of Hawaiian Soils." 
We shall now endeavor to obtain some more definite 
and special knowledge of the solubility of these soils, 
and try to understand something of the state of avail- 
ability of certain required elements in plant growth, 
and their behaviour under the action of processes operat- 
ing in Nature. 

Before proceeding, it may be well to repeat how strict- 
ly necessary it is that the fundamental differences which 
we have shown do actually obtain between Hawaiian 
soils, and soils of America and other countries, in the 
matters of relative and structural composition, and in 
the state of solubility, should be continually kept in 
mind. These differences persuade us at the outset that 
corresponding results cannot follow the action of either 
artificial solvents, or the processes of Nature, upon soils 



118 



of suL'li dissimilar composition. The primary circum- 
stance, that we are dealino- with soils of a strongly basic 
nature, as compared with other soils of a highly acid 
character, suggests that the action of any solvents may 
be widely different upon the two orders of soils. These 
considerations then, should guard against the use of re~ 
suits found upon Hawaiian soils, and in these conditions, 
in judging of the character of other and different soils, 
found in totally different conditions. 

LABORATORY MODES OF ESTIMATING THE 
ELEMENTS OF PLANT FOOD AVAIL- 
ABLE IN SOILS. 

The annals of agricultural chemistry furnish the re- 
sults of numerous and very dissimilar endeavors to 
establish a means of estimating the proportion of the 
elements important in plant nutrition which may be said 
to be availahic at the time of examination, for that pur- 
pose. Up to this time, those endeavors have not resulted 
in any methods which appear to be in so far uniform 
as to agree in the recognition of the principles upon 
which, it may be found, such methods must rest. The 
most representative associations of agricultural chemists 
continue to oscillate between extremes that indicate the 
absence of anything permanent in inMnciple, or that prom- 
ises to become uniform in practice. 

Methods and Solvents. — In framing a method, and in 
the selection of solvents, for estimating the proportion 
of plant food possibly available in soils at the time of ex- 
amination it seems necessary to be guided by an exact 
observance of the agencies by means of which the insol- 



119 



iible soil-materials are being- daily altered by the pro- 
cesses of Nature in the field into forms in which they can 
be used by growing plants. 

The processes operating in Nature by which the 
elements are prepared as food, are physio-chemical; and 
for this reason the problem cannot be primarily con- 
sidered from the analytical standpoint 

The solvent agents operating in Nature, in addition to 
ivater, are the acids moving in the sap of living plants, 
and operating on soils through the membranes of their 
roots, the chief one, as far as we know at present, being 
carbonic acid (COo); and, more important, the acids 
which result from the decaj' of vegetable matter upon and 
within the soil. 

The acids formed when plants, roots, and fruits decay 
are simple organic acids — carbon acids; and the amido 
acids — carbo-nitrogen acids. Therefore the acids in liv- 
ing, and produced by dying plant organisms are carbon 
acids, with or without nitrogen. In the complete decay 
of vegetable matter these organic acids are resolved into 
ultimate mineral bodies; the carbon into carbonic acid, 
and the nitrogen into nitric acid, or nitrogen, the simple 
forms in which these were primarily taken from the air 
to build up the plant organism. Consequently the 
amounts of carbon and of nitrogen contained in plant 
organisms are respectively the measure of the relative 
amounts of simple carbon acids, and of amido acids that 
can be produced in vegetable decay, and of the amounts 
of carbonic and nitric acids that finally result from that 
decay, and which act as solvent agents on the soil. The 
minute amount of sulphuric acid, and the still smaller 
l^ortion of phosphoric acid, that are formed from tlie 



120 



suli)hui' ill tlie pi'oteids and iiucleiiis, and from the 
I)li()spliorous in the phospho-glyeerides (lecithines) are 
unnoticed now. 

In the absence of elementary estimations of the carbon 
and nitrogen in plant oroanisms, these estimations being- 
confined to constitnent bodies, we may come a])proxi- 
mately to such determinations by ascertaining the 
amount of tlie constituents of plants that are composed 
of carbonaceous bodies not containing nitrogen, and the 
proportion of bodies that do contain nitrogen. The bodies 
free from nitrogen are the so-called nitrogen-free extract 
matter, the fiber, and, for our present purpose are added 
the fats. The bodies containing nitrogen are now col- 
lectively considered as proteids. The amounts of these 
nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous carbonaceous bodies 
found in a broadly representative series of agricultural 
plants are found in the following table: 



Materials. 


No of 
Examples 


Proteids. 


Fiber. 


Nitrogen-free 
Extract-Matter 


Fats. 


Legumes and Cereals 

Root aud Biilbs 

Graiu and other Seeds 


32 
14 
45 


Per cent. 

8.0 
13 9 
12 9 


Per cent. 

27.6 

10 5 

2.3 


Per cent. 

51.5 
64 5 
79.5 


Per cent. 

3.1 

3 1 

4 4 


Means 


91 


11.6 


13.5 


65 2 


3.5 







If the third series, tlie seeds, are excluded for the reason 
that the grain and seeds are not allowed to return direct- 
ly to the soil, the means will remain nearly the same, 
the large ])r<>portion of crtriicl iiiafh rs in seeds being off- 
set by the small amount of fibei'. These data show that in 
the 91 examples of growths we have. 



Nitrogen-free Carbnnaeeous bodie.s = 82.2 Per cent. 

Nitrosenons C ;rbonaceons bodies =116 "' 



121 



The nitrogen-free bodies may be considered as con- 
taining six parts of carbon (C,j Hio O.5). The proteids, 
in which the elementary analysis finds 16% of nitrogen, 
with 54% of carbon, are bodies in which, according to the 
relative atomic weights, abont three parts of carbon are 
associated with one part of nitrogen. The relation of the 
carbon and nitrogen present in these organisms, then 
may be expressed thus: 





Per cent. 


r. 


F'arts of 


Nitrogen-free Carbonaceous bodies.-. . 
Nitrogenous Carbonaceous bodies 

Nitrogenous Carbonaceous bodies 


82.2 X 
11.6 X 

11.6 X 


6 = 
3 = 

N. 
1 = 


493.2 Carbon 
34.8 

528 

11.6 Nitrogen 



These data indicate that in the composition of the 
plants, roots, and seeds stated there are forty-five parts 
of carbon to one part of nitrogen. Therefore in the de^ 
composition of those organisms there must finally be pro- 
duced forty-five parts of carbonic acid and one part of 
nitric acid. 

Mtric acid is a more immediately active solvent than 
carbonic acid, and will dissolve soil material rapidly 
while its action lasts. The duration and measure of its 
action, however, are fixed by the quantity, and can ex- 
tend only to the point of neutralization with the bases 
it acts upon, which is the same with the carbonic acid. 
Moreover, nitric acid is a mono-basic acid, while carbonic 
acid is di-basic; which thus doubles the solvent power of 
the forty-five parts of carbon and lowers the possible 
action of the one part of nitrogen to only one-ninetieth 
(1-90) part of that of carbonic acid, providing both acids 
exercise their action on the soil bases to neutralization. 



122 



The above considerations have appeared to the writer 
to be a guide in the selection of solvents which are to 
compare, in any measure, wdth tlu^ action of ])rocesses 
operating in the tield; and tlicy led to the exclusion of 
mineral acids, and the use of simple carbon acids and 
amido acids in these investigations. 

Citric Acid as a Solvent. — It is due to consider, the 
first in order, citric acid as a solvent, since not only has 
considerable work been done, and conclusions been 
reached, based u])on the solvent action of this acid, it 
also exercises an accepted infl-uence in the estimation of 
certain fertilizing materials of great economic impor- 
tance. As an exception to omitting references to author- 
ities generally, which is done to economize space, atten- 
tion is called to the work of Dr. Bernard Dyer with citric 
acid, on soils. 

The examinations and results to be recorded are not 
confined to observations made upon samples of soil taken 
by chance, but upon soils definitely selected in districts 
of the four islands. On Oaliu, samples were taken from 
Waianae, P^wa, Heeia and Waimanalo districts; on 
Kauai, from the Kekaha, Makaweli, Kealia and Kilauea 
districts; on Maui, from Hana, Paia and Wailuku dis- 
tricts; on Hawaii, from Hawi, Niulii, Ookala, Laupahoe- 
hoe, Hilo and Kau districts. These comprise 30, what we 
shall call, ti/pc samples: and 3G0 siih-samples : which means 
that each type sample represents some 10 to 15 sub-sam- 
ples taken from a large area where the soil is of one 
type. As we have already remarked, the samples were 
taken personally by the Avriter, or in places, and by 
methods, advised by us. The superficial character of the 
land, eh'vation, exposure, and rainfall were noted, and 
attached to each sample, witli its agricultural analysis. 



123 



In addition to the care given to make the soils selected 
representative of the types found on all the islands, these 
soils were resolved into two groups: Upland (mauka) 
soils; and lowland (makai) soils. This division was 
made in our rejDort on soils in 1895, and has been con- 
tinued since, and denotes differences in the soils, which 
are mainly due to rainfall and other superficial causes. 

In the thirty (30) type samples of soils spoken of, 
estimations were made: 

First: Of the lime, potash, and phosphoric acid soluble 
in water. 

Second : Of the lime, potash and phosphoric acid solu^ 
ble in an 1% solution of citric acid. 

At this place we state simply the mode of treat- 
ing the soils with the solvents, leaving some observations 
to be made on methods for a later occasion. 

In the estimation of elements soluble in water 200 
grams of the field sample (not fine earth) were put into 
a closed funnel, with a ground glass cover, and treated 
with lOOOcc of water for 48 hours, the water percolating 
through slowly, and then returned upon the soil, and 
continued for the time stated. 

In determining the elements soluble in 1% citric acid 
solution, 200 grams of the field sample were put into a 
two-liter bottle with 1000 cc of the 1% citric acid solu- 
tion; the bottle was gently shaken every fifteen minutes 
during the day portion of 24 hours, and at the end of this 
time filtered off. One reason for the shorter time of treat- 
ment with citric acid is its liability to fermentation in 
great dilution, a matter that will be spoken of later. 

With these brief definitions, we now give tables of 
data which set forth the solvent action of water and 



124 



citric acid ros])ectivelT upon each of 30 type samples of 
soil, taken fi-om districts on the four Islands, and rep- 
resentative of all our soils. We give the amounts of 
lime, potash, and phosphoric acid found by the agricul- 
tural analysis in each soil, with the amounts soluble in 
water and citric acid respectiyely, and the pounds per 
acre actually dissolved by the solvents. The individual 
statement of the behaviour of each soil under the action 
of the solvents is necessary in order to understand the 
range of variation, and the different forms of combina- 
tion in which the elements exist in the soil, which is in- 
dicated by the variable ratio of solubility. The data 
occupy much space; but they also involved great labor 
and time in their preparation. We give first the data on 
lAme. 



125 



LIME. 



Laboratory 


Lime in 


Soluble in 


Pounds 


Soluble in 


Pounds per 


No. 


Soil. 


Water. 


per Acre. 


Citric Acid. 


Acre. 




Per cent. 


Per cent. 




Per cent. 




3 


0.257 


0.0057 


199 


0.145 


5075 


5 


0.112 


0.0035 


122 


0.075 


^625 


6 


0.442 


C 0029 


101 


0.195 


6825 


12 


0.330 


0.0087 


304 


0.097 


3395 


13 


0.600 






0.053 


18.55 
6195 


14 


0.510 


'" 0.6682'" 


' ' 287 ' ' 


0.177 


17 


0.435 






0.2?8 


7980 
3605 


19 


0.338 


" 0.6665"" 


' ' 207 " ' 


0.103 


22 


0.200 






O.Ofil 


2135 


25 


0.800 


""o'.6ii6"' 


■ ■ 406 ' ' 


0.233 


81.55 


26 


0.215 


0.0024 


84 


0.043 


1505 


43 


0.448 


0.0102 


357 


0.230 


8050 


45 


0.541 






0.147 


5135 


46 


0.473 






0.118 


4130 


47 


0.168 


" 0.0041 " 


"Hi" 


0.113 


3955 


55 


0.365 


0.0103 


361 


0.177 


6195 


60 


0.080 


0.0018 


63 


0.055 


1925 


33 


0.320 






0.099 


3465 
1050 


66 


0.109 


""o'.6669"' 


""si" 


0!030 


69 


0.350 


0.0024 


84 


0.155 


5422 


71 


0.448 


0.0046 


161 


0.171 


5985 


84 


0.095 


0.0014 


49 


034 


1190 


90 


0.120 


0.0009 


31 


0.043 


1505 


92 


0.157 


0.0018 


63 


0.031 


1085 


93 


0.092 


0.0080 


280 


0.068 


2380 


601 


0943 


0.0026 


91 


0.281 


9835 


604 


0.473 


0.0035 


122 


0.087 


3045 


614 


0.237 






0.059 


2065 


616 


0529 
0.305 










617 






0.025 


875 











126 



POTASH. 



Laboratory 


Potash in 


Soluble in 


Pounds 


Soluble in 


Pounds 


No. 


Soil. 


Water. 


Per Acre. 


Citric Acid. 


Per Acre . 




Per cent. 


Per cent. 




Per cent. 


Per cent. 


3 


0.250 • 


0.0070 


245 


0.048 


1680 


5 


0.595 


0.0025 


87 


0.023 


805 


6 


0.201 


0.0016 


56 


0.009 


315 


12 


0.178 


0.0029 


106 


0.025 


875 


13 


0.250 
0.299 






0.055 
0.084 


1925 


14 


""o.oiis" 


""508"' 


2940 


17 


0.405 
0.257 






0.047 
0.068 


1645 


19 


'"00236" 


""826 ' 


2380 


22 


0.221 
0.435 






0.014 
0.053 


490 


25 


0.6687 


' ' ' '304 ' 


1855 


26 


0.396 


0.0029 


102 


0.027 


945 


43 


0.129 


0.0025 


87 


0.052 


1820 


45 


0.139 
0.250 
0.259 






0.030 
0.039 
0.017 


1050 


46 






1365 


47 


"0.0625"' 


• • • • y ^ • • • 


595 


55 


507 










60 


0,291 


""o'.6o'2o"' 


■ " 70"' 


0.015 


525 "" 


33 


0.280 


0.0021 


73 


0.062 


2170 


66 


0.234 


0.0082 


112 


0.043 


1505 


09 


0.426 


0.0038 


133 


0.039 


1365 


71 


0.413 


0.0059 


206 


0.051 


1785 


84 


0.243 


0.0020 


70 


0.013 


455 


90 


0.407 


0.0032 


112 


0.014 


490 


92 


0.315 


0.0063 


220 


022 


770 


93 


0.242 


0.0053 


186 


0.013 


455 


601 


0.400 


0.0038 


133 


0.021 


735 


604 


0.166 


o.o( ).")(; 


196 


016 


560 


614 


0.422 


0.0033 


115 


0.025 


875 


616 


0.258 
0.349 










617 























127 



PHOSPHORIC ACID. 



Laboratory 


Phosphoric 


Soluble in 


Pounds 


So uble in 


Pounds per 


No. 


Acid in Soil. 


Water. 


per Acre. 


Citric Acid 


Acre. 




Per cent. 


Per cent 




Per cent. 




3 


0.211 


trace 


trace 


0.0043 


150 


5 


0.173 


trace 


trace 


0.0035 


122 


6 


0.365 


0.0006 


21 


0.0125 


437 


12 


0.096 


0.0002 


7 


0.0032 


112 


13 


0.080 


0.0002 


7 


0.0105 


367 


14 


0.115 


trace 


trace 


0.0012 


42 


17 


0.157 


trace 


trace 


0.0042 


147 


19 


0.166 


0.0002 


7 


0.0018 


63 


22 


0.223 
0.221 






0.0020 
0.0019 


70 


25 


trace 


trace 


66 


26 


0.153 


trMce 


trace 


0.0018 


63 


43 


0.110 


trace 


trace 


0.0071 


248 


45 


0.085 
0.088 
0.292 






0.0038 
0.0036 
0.0022 


133 


46 






126 


47 


trace 


trace 


77 


55 


0.464 
0.354 






0.0035 
0.0016 


123 


60 


trace 


trace 


56 


33 


0.137 


0.0008 


28 


0.0034 


119 


66 


0.579 


0006 


21 


0.0039 


136 


69 


0.602 


0.0002 


7 


0.0058 


203 


71 


0.307 


0.0002 


7 


0.0027 


95 


84 


0.527 


0.0002 


7 


0.0041 


144 


90 


0.606 


0.0005 


17 


0.0031 


108 


92 


0.281 


0.0005 


17 


0.0025 


88 


93 


0.772 


0.0002 


7 


0.0057 


199 


601 


0.711 


0.0007 


; 24 


0084 


294 


604 


0.301 


0.0003 


! 10 


0.0085 


297 


614 


0.239 


0.0005 


1 1^ 


0.0038 


133 


616 


0.132 
0.333 




1 


0.0033 
0.0046 


115 


617 







161 











128 



It may be explaiiiod at this place that a statement iu 
per cent, quantity up to the fourth decimal may be accept- 
ed as reliable, for the reason that in all the determina- 
tions never less than 200 grams of soil were taken. Con« 
sequently an amount of phosphoric acid which is express- 
ed by even a low figure in the fourth decimal means an 
actual weight of magnesium pyrophosphate that a 
moderately sensitive balance will easily take account of, 
even up to one-ten-thousandths of one per cent. 

From the tables of data presented we obtain a more 
or less adequate understanding of the variation in the 
amounts of lime, potash, and phosphoric acid present in 
our soils, and of the different behaviour of these elements, 
under the solvent action of water and citric acid, in soils 
from different localities. These differences indicate that 
these elements are contained in the soils in varying 
chemical forms, to which can be due the difference in 
solubility. Before making further comment u])on the 
tables of data we shall bring them together in concise 
averages; and at the same time we shall divide the soils 
examined into the two classes under which they have 
been considered previously, viz: Upland (mauka) soils, 
and lowland (makai) soils, this division being based uiK)n 
the signal difference in climatic conditions that obtain at 
different elevations. The first small table gives the aver- 
age of lime, potash, and phosphoric acid in the 30 type 
soils, as shoAvn by the agricultural analyses: 



Soils. 


Type 
Samples. 


Sub- 
Samples. 


Lime. 


Potash. 


Phosphoric 
Acid. 


Uplands . 


14 
16 


168 
192 


Per cent 

277 
0.399 


Per cent. 

0.299 
0.377 


Per cent. 

0.316 


Lowlands 


0.304 



129 



The elements soluble in water, and in one per cent, 
citric acid solution, are respectively as follows: 





Soluble in 
Water. 


Pounds 
Per Acre. 


Soluble in 
Citric Acid. 


Pounds 
Per Acre. 


Total Pounds 
Per Acre. 


Uplands. 
Lime 


Per cent. 
0.0032 

0.0031 
0.0001 

0.0054 
0.0047 
0.0003 


112 

110 

3 

189 

164 

10 


Per cent. 

0.0940 
0.0250 
0.0035 

01330 

0.C380 
0.0046 


3290 

875 
122 

4655 

1330 

162 


9695 


Potash 

Phosphoric Acid .... 

Lowlands. 

Lime 

Potash 


10465 
11795 

13965 
11795 


Phosphoric Acid .... 


10640 



The "pounds -pev acre" in the three columns are calcu- 
lated by means of the weight of an acre of soil one foot 
deep, to which usually the sample is taken, which weight 
is set at the average of 3,500,000 lbs. The weight is 
greater than this on most lowJaiids and less on the up- 
lauds, which contain notably more organic matter. The 
weight of the cubic foot of soil varies some 13 lbs. — from 
80 lbs. to 93 lbs. for water-free material. 

These estimations of solubility of the lime, potash, and 
phosphoric acid confirm in an ample measure our obser- 
vations made upon upland and lowland soils in 1895 and 
1896. In speaking of the lime contents of the upper 
and lower lands it was said in 1895 "the lime present in 
the upland soils has been, previous to cultivation, prac- 
tically the same, which is shown by analyses of virgin 
and cropped soils, and comparison of the upland virgin 
soils with the lowland soils;" but "as the lime, being 
in a more or less soluble state, was w^ashed out and down 
into the lowlands, or into the sea, by the heavy rains." 
The lime soluble in water, we see, is 189 lbs. in the low- 

9 



130 



lands, against 112 lbs. in the nplands. The same is found 
under the action of the citric acid, where the upland 
soils give up 3290 lbs. per acre of lime, and the lowlands 
no less than 4655 lbs. per acre, in 24 hours to the action 
of citric acid. The observations on the solubility of the 
potash in the upper and lower lands are also in agree- 
ment with i)revious findings. In the matter of the phos- 
phoric acid the results are even more remarkable in the 
way in which they suj)port previous conclusions upon this 
body and its state of insolubility. In our reports of 1895 
and 1896 it is said "the phosphoric acid in our soils ap- 
pears to be locked up so securely by the iron and other 
compounds that plants use it with difificulty." In the 
above tables it is seen that the phosphoric acid soluble 
in water in the lowlands is 10 lbs. per acre, and in the 
uplands 3 lbs., which, practically speaking, means none 
at all, whilst the amount dissolved by the citric acid is 
relatively very small. 

By far, the most striking result from the action of 
an 1% solution of citric acid upon the soil is the 
enormous proportion of the lime, and also of the potash, 
dissolved. The lime found by the agricultural analyses 
in the ui)land soils was 9695 lbs. per acre, and of this 
amount 3290 lbs., or 30%, were dissolved by the acid 
in 24 hours. In the lowland soils the lime ]ier acre was 
13,965 lbs., and the citric acid took out 4655 lbs., or about 
30% of the total found in the soil by the agricultural 
analyses. The potash dissolved was also a very large 
proportion of the whole. Yet the action of an 1% citric 
acid solution is much less than the action of solvents 
that are used by chemists in estimating the so-called 
"amount of available elements." 

The question suggested by our results with citric acid, 



131 



and more- strongly reiterated by other results that have 
been published, is How much nearer are we brought to an 
understanding of the actual availability of the elements 
— their relation to the demands of the plant — by the use 
of citric acid in 1% solution, as compared with the results 
of the agricultural analyses obtained by the use of con^ 
centrated hydrochloric acid? The latter mineral acid^ 
in 10 hours, upon the water bath, dissolved out all the 
lime which, it has been said, "can ever become soluble;'^ 
and yet a cold, 1% solution of citric acid, which is the 
solvent most accepted for determining the amount of the 
elements "immediately available," takes out 30% of the 
"total lime" in 24 hours. 

The "absolute analyses'' of soils given in the first part 
of these investigations, with the examination of the "in- 
soluble residue" of the soil, after digestion with con- 
centrated hydrochloric acid, afford notable light on the 
question of solubility of the constituent compounds of 
soils. In the "insoluble residue" of Hawaiian soils we 
found 1.02% of lime, which was left after the action 
of concentrated hydrochloric acid, and the repeated action 
with a new quantity of the acid. Consequently the 
"absolute analysis" of the soil found O.Tir)% of lime, in- 
stead of 0.342%, recorded by the usual aqrk'uJtural 
mmhjsis. It is thus seen that the hydrochloric acid doe» 
not take out quite one-half of the lime present in the 
soil. These data afford, as said, notable light upon the 
state of solubility of our soils, and upon their mode of 
structure, all of which indications are invaluable in a 
complete study, and accentuate the fundamental prin- 
ciple of comparative solKhilitics which dominates all struc- 
ture in the mineral, vegetable, and animal kingdoms. 
The data, however, do not help us in estimating the lime, 



132 



potash and [►li<>si>li(>i'ic acid "immediately available'' to 
the growing plant. 

Knowing the toftil rune (tctiidllii contained in the soil, as 
shown by the "absolute analysis," and the pro])ortion 
of that total found soluble in concentrated hydrochloric 
acid aftei* digesting 10 hours upon a water bath, we went 
on to the examination with an 1% solution of citric 
acid. 'Phe citric acid solution, however, exercised a sol- 
vent action in 21 hours equal to one-third of the solvent 
power of the hydrochloric acid, dissolving out one-seventh 
of the total lime found by absolute analysis, and in the 
short period of one day. In this action we do not find 
anything, in point of degree, corresponding to the pro- 
cesses which go on in Nature; or in the results of this ac- 
tion, any indication of the proportion of plant food that 
is actually available. But for the grand principle of 
differential solubility obtaining in all matter, the citric 
acid would have taken all the lime out of the soil in 
probably less than six days. There is no relation between 
these results and the amount of plant food removed 
from the soil hj crops — which action of crops, however, 
as we shall show later, also bears no constant relation 
to the ratio of plant food depletion in soils under cultiva- 
tion, and therefore cannot be taken as a guide in the mat- 
ter of fertilization, or restoring the lost elements. 

Of course, it has not been claimed that the action of 
an 1% solution of citric acid corresponds to the action 
of solvent agents operating in Nature, but the results of 
its action have been taken to furnish an estimate of the 
available ]dant food in soils, and we find that it has but 
little more meaning in sudi respect than the hydrochloric 
acid used in the common analyses. 

What the continued action of an 1% solution of citric 



133 



acid upon soils might result in is exemplified by results 
obtained b}^ us of its action on lavas. A weighed piece 
of solid lava was put into a bottle, and 300 cc. of an 1% 
solution of citric acid added, the acid being renewed 
every fourth day on account of its liability to ferment. 
Another weighed piece of the same lava, but in a state 
of decomposition, from simple weathering, was put into 
a second bottle and treated in the same way with the 
citric acid. At the end of three months the weathered 
lava was totally disintegrated, and chiefly in solution. 
The solid lava, which weighed 29.140 grams on Jan. 27, 
after nine months action of the citric acid, weighed only 
14.63 grams, the residue being left in such a soft state 
that the thumb nail penetrated it easily. 

In considering a solvent, however, which is selected 
with a view to approximating the action of the solvent 
agents operating in Nature, some attention should be 
given to the organisms of plants, and their sensibility 
to the action of acids. An extensive series of observa- 
tions upon the "Relative Sensibility of Plants to Acidity 
in Soils" was conducted by the writer which furnished 
data, a part of which will serve the present purpose. The 
following data set forth the effect of applying to plants 
growing in tubs a volume of water equal to the amount 
that the soil w^as just capable of absorbing and holding, 
which amount was 48% on the weight of the soil. This 
water contained one-tenth of one per cent, of citric acid. 
Every fourth day the weights of the tubs were taken, and 
the amount of evaporation found, when enough water was 
again added to bring up the volume to the nmximum 
absorptive power of the soil. With the water added, 
enough citric acid in solution was also added to make 
the total water in the soil every fourth day equal to one- 



134 



tenth of one per cent, solution of the acid. The acid was 
applied with the greatest care by use of a large pipette, 
thus making sure that the same volume was delivered 
to each of the 18 plants under treatment. We give the 
results obtained by the use of one strength of acid which 
will be enough for the present purpose. Observations 
with different strengths of acid were made, the results 
of all which have already been published. The following 
data are the record of the action of a solution of citric 
acid, one-tenth of one per cent, in strength: 



A. CRUCIFEKA. 



Name of Plants 


Planted. 


Up. 


Failed 


Developement. 


Black Mustard. . 
White Mustard.. 

Sn<?ar Beet 

Mangold Wurzel 

Rape 

Carrot 


May 27 

11, 
li 


Mav 29 
"■ 29 
" 31 
" 31 
" 30 

June 3 


June 15 
" 15 
" 11 
" 11 

" 17 
" 17 


3 inches high. 
3 " 
3 " 
3 " 

3 " 

4 » 



B. LEGUMINOSAE. 



Kama of Plants. Planted. 



White Lupine. 

Cow Bean 

Horse Bean .... 
Winter Vetch . . 
Crimson Clovt-r.. 
Alfalfa 



Mav 27 



Up. 


Failed. 




May 30 


Julv 16 


12inc 


•' 30 


Aug. 31 


86 ' 


June 3 


" 12 


36 ' 


May 31 


July 9 


24 ' 


" 30 


June 17 


3 " 


" 29 


•' 15 


3 " 



Development. 



C. GRAMINAE. 



Name of Plants. 


Planted. 


Up. 


Matured. 


Development. 


Pearl Millet .... 

Wheat 

Maize 


May 27 


May 30 

n 
11 
11 


Matured. 

Failed 

1. 

11 
It 


49 inches and Sound Seeds. 

15 inches long. 

42 inches long; no Seed 


Oats 


8 inches long. 
8 inches long 


Barley . . . '. 







135 



These results have a great value iu indicatiuii the 
"relative sensibility" of our common agricultural plauta 
to soil acidity. It is seen that all the crucifera, and the 
clovers succumb at once to the acid; but certain legmncs 
and graminae attain a notable growth. Only the pearl 
millet however, reaches a normal development, forming 
seed of excellent appearance. These results show very 
clearly that in using a solution of citric acid of one-tenth 
of one per cent, in strength for estimating the available 
plant food in soils, w^e are dealing with a solvent whose 
action cannot correspond to anything operating in 
Nature. 

The considerations that we have enumerated, all of 
which have assisted in leading to the conclusion that 
the use of an 1% solution of citric acid does not assist 
us very materially more than concentrated hydro- 
chloric acid in actually reaching a duplication of the 
measure of solvent activity proceeding in Nature; nor 
thus, in estimating the proportion of the soil elements 
that are immediately available as plant food — these con- 
siderations, we repeat, have caused us to try to follow, 
in thought, more closely the course of Nature's opera- 
tions; the continuous but slow processes which mark her 
modes of action, and to endeavor to come somewhat more 
approximately, in our laboratory observations, upon the 
plane of action wherein the processes of the field are 
going on. We are quite aware that we cannot strictly 
duplicate the proceedings of Nature. By watching her 
ways, however, and adjusting our methods of observation 
to the modes which she appears to use, we may work 
towards results apparently more comparable, and which 
may actually guide us in dealing with the practical ques- 
tions of the field. 



136 



The results obtained bv the use of an one per cent, 
solution of citric acid upon soils led us into a line of 
observations, in which tceaJcer solvents were used, but their 
action extended over a period of iceeks instead of hotir.s. By 
this mode of treatment we expected, at least, to come 
nearer to what is takino- place in the field. 

After much consideration, and several preliminary con- 
trol tests, a method was decided upon that we shall speak 
of with some detail. 

The principle of the method was the use of solvents of 
small, and also different decrees of strenofh; the renewal 
of the solvent every fourth day, with the continuance of 
its action over a considerable period of time, and the 
examination of the results at definite intervals alon_<>- tliia 
course of time. 

So:\rE Prelimixary Tests. — In considerin<i' modes of car- 
rying out these Titne Experiments, as they had been named 
by us, the first plan involved the use of large funnels with 
ground tops and glass plate covers, and the corking of 
the stem of the funnel. The soil was to be put into the 
funnel and the solvent added. Every fourth day, five 
cubic centimeters of the solvent were to be drawn off and 
tested with a standardized alkali, and the necessary 
amount of acid added to bring the solution, covering the 
soil, up to precisely its original strength. The portion of 
solution drawn off at the bottom of the funnel, was found, 
upon comparison, to have a less degree of acidity than 
another portion that was taken with a pipette from the 
liquid above the soil in the funnel. 

25ec from abo\e the Soil in funnel 23.5ec. Na OH. 

25cc drawn off at bottom of funnel 14 5cc. " 

These tests showed that at the end of seven days the 
acid contained in a solution, added to a soil kept at rest 



137 



in a funnel, had not become equally distributed and 
neutralized, consequently this mode of treatment could 
not be used. 

Further tests furnished results showing the different 
action of the same solvent under different conditions. 
A given volume of the solvent was added to a given 
weight of soil, and the vessel kept still for seven days. 
An* equal volume of the solution was added to an equal 
weight of the soil, and the bottle shaken gently every 
fifteen minutes during the day portion of 24 hours. 

25cc. of original solutioa =36 2cc. Na OH. 

25cc. of solution after standing 7 days = IS.Occ. " 

25cc. ef solution after shaking 24 hours = 12.4cc. " 

These observations show, in general, that the action 
resulting from the use of a solvent is largely controlled 
by the mode of its use. The former test showed why, 
for the purpose of these Time Experiments, a solvent 
could not be used upon soil in a funnel, or other vessel, 
at rcf<f. Further, and repeated, tests have shown, with 
equal clearness, that by shaking the vessel containing 
the soil and solvent, which is the only mode of securing 
an uniform distribution and action of the solvent, the re- 
sults of the action will be in large measure proportionate 
to the vigor of the shaking. 

As a result of these simple preliminary tests, a mode 
of treatment was adopted which can be stated as follows'. 
Exactly 200 grams of soil were put into the ordinary two 
litre acid bottles, having ground glass stoppers, and 
200cc. of the solvent added. This volume was found to 
be just about enough to saturate and immerse the soil, 
without any great excess of the solvent solution being 
present, which was guarded against. 



138 



Twenty bottles were taken and charged with 2()() .^ranis 
of soil and 200cc. of solvent, as already stated. Ten of 
these bottles were given to obsiM'vations on nphmd 
(nuudca) soils; and the remaining ten bottles to corres- 
ponding observations on lowland (makai) soils. 

Each series of ten bottles was fnrther divided into two 
groups of five bottles each. The one group was to fur- 
nish data setting forth the results of the continued action 
of an ouv-tcnth of one per cent, solution of acid, and the 
second group of an one-fiftieth of one per cent, solution of 
acid upon the same soil. The four groups, of five bottles 
each, were thus to furnish results from the two different 
strengths of acid upon the "upland" and "lowland" soils. 
One bottle from each of the four groups, containing five 
bottles each, was selected for testing and controlling the 
acidity of the bottles in the four groups. This was done 
in order to avoid the necessity of testing the remaining 
acidity of the solution in all the twenty bottles at the 
intervals decided upon, which was every fourth day, 
and was based on the supposition that if 200cc. of solu- 
tion of either of the stated strengths, were added to 
duplicates of 200 grams of soil put into five bottles the 
action of the acid, and the remaining acidity, would be 
the same in each bottle, providing all the bottles were 
shaken, and otherwise treated, the same. The grouping 
of the series mav be seen more clearly as follows: 



139 



Upland Soils. 


LOWLAN 


D Soils. 


One-Tenth Per cent 
Solution of Acid. 


One-Fiftieth Per 
cent Solution of Acid 


One-Tenth Per cent 
Solution of Acid. 


One-Fiftieth Per 
cent Solution of Acid 


1 Bottle. 

2 '• 
3 

4 
Test " 


1 Bottle 
2 
3 
4 
Test " 


1 Bottle 
2 

3 " 

4 " 
Test " 


1 Bottle 

2 
3 
4 
Test " 



These "Time Experiments" were conducted with citric 
acid as the solvent, in order that the results should be 
comparable with the series of results obtained with 
the one per cent solution of citric acid, that have already 
been given. 

The control of the acidity of the solutions was made 
by use of an 1-500 normal solution of sodic hydrate. 
Every fourth day 25cc. of solution was drawn with a 
pipette from each of the four "test bottles" and the re- 
maining acidity of the solution determined; when enough 
citric acid was added to restore the acidity of the solu- 
tions in each bottle in all the groups to the original 
strength. The following table shows the variation of 
behaviour of the acid solutions during the intervals of 
four days: 



140 





Upland SoiiiS. 


LowiiAND Soils. 


Date. 












One-tenth 


One fiftieth 


One-tenth 


One fiftieth 




Solution. 


Solution. 


Solution. 


Solution. 


Original Solutions 


184.7 cc. alkali 


36.2 cc alkali 


184.7 cc alkali 


36.2 cc. alkali 


January 25 


13.0 cc. •• 


9.4 cc " 


5.2 cc " 


7.1 cc. " 


29 


16.7 cc. '^ 


9.3 cc •' 


7.5 cc " 


2.5 cc. " 


Februat y 2 


29.3 cc. " 


16.7 cc " 


18.8 cc " 


5.0 cc. " 


6 


39.2 cc. '• 


12.9 cc " 


25.5 cc " 


4.9 cc. •' 


10 


39.0 cc. " 


9.0 cc " 


20.0 cc " 


4.4 cc. " 


15 


50.0 cc. " 


9.0 cc " 


10.0 cc " 


3.0 cc. " 


19 


62.5 cc. '• 


15.0 cc " 


30.0 cc '• 


5.0 cc. " 


23 


50.9 cc. " 


10.7 cc " 


25.0 cc " 


4.3 cc. " 


27 


100.0 cc. " 


18.2 cc " 


30.0 cc " 


4.2 cc. " 


Maroli 3 


93.7 cc. '• 


20.5 cc " 


43.7 cc " 


2.5 cc. " 


8 


72.0 cc. " 


8.7 cc " 


13 2CC " 


1.2 cc. " 


12 


80.0 cc. " 


6.2 cc " 


27.5 cc " 


2.0 cc. •' 


16 


58.0 cc. " 


15.0 cc " 


28.7 cc " 


1.7 cc. " 


20 


42.5 cc. " 


12.0 cc " 


25.0 cc " 


2 cc. " 


25 


75.0 cc. " 


7.5 cc 


25.0 cc " 


1.2 cc. " 


29 .... 


21.2 cc. " 


17.5 cc " 


15.0 cc " 


1.5 cc. " 


April 2 


87.2 cc. " 


10.0 cc " 


18.5 cc " 


1.5 cc. " 


6 


30.0 cc. " 


17.5 cc " 


37.5 cc " 


3.7 cc. " 


10 


72.5 cc. " 


15.0 cc " 


35.0 cc " 


3.0 cc. " 


14 


66.2 cc. " 


15.0 cc " 


43.7 cc " 


4.2 cc. " 


19 


61.2 cc. " 


12.5 cc " 


33.7 cc " 


4.5 cc. " 



The first liue of each of these four columus shows the 
number of cubic centimeter of the alkali solution that 
were required to neutralize 25 cc. of the original acid 
solutions used as solvents. The remainin«i fioures in each 
column show the number of cubic centimeter of alkali 
required to neutralize 25cc. of the acid solutions at 
the intervals staled. The total amounts of cr.vstalline 
citric acid applied to the 200 grams of soil in eacli bottle 
in the respective groups during the tinie^ between 
January 21 and April 19 were as follows: 



Soils. 


Solution Ap])lied. 


Citric Acid Applied. 


Upland. One-Tenth Solution 

Lowland, One-Tenth Solution 

Upland. One-Fiftieth Sohition. .. 
Lowland, One-Fiftieth Solution 


550cc. 
550cc. 
600cc. 
600cc. 


2.94 Grama 
3.60 
0.54 
0.74 



141 



On January 21 the experiment was begun with 200cc. 
of solution in eaeli bottle. The adding of citric acid 
every fourth day, even in the most concentrated solution, 
brought up the volume to 550cc. and 600cc. respectively. 
To guard against the action of this increased volume a 
portion of the nearly neutralized solution was removed 
from the soil in the bottles, thus keeping the volume 
more closely to the original amount. The removed por- 
tions were preserved and added finally to the whole 
when filtered off from the soil at the time of analysis. 

Behaviour of the Citric Acid. — In examining the 
columns which state the measure of neutralization of 
the acid in the solution, as indicated by the amount of 
alkali required to neutralize the remaining acidity, a very 
great variation appears between the intervals in the 
amounts of acid unneutralized. In the first column it is 
seen that at the end of one interval only 13cc. of alkali 
were necessary to neutrality; at the end of another in- 
terval lOOcc. of alkali were taken to neutralize the acid 
remaining in the solution. This variation appears along 
the column, and in all the columns. We became persuad- 
ed that this varying behaviour of the solvent between the 
intervals was due to the fermentation of the citric acid, 
and two control tests were begun in order to observe 
the mode and measure of the fermentation. These tests 
were made by placing 200 grams of soil in each of two 
bottles the one containing upland, and the other lowland 
soil, and adding 200cc. of the 1-10 solution of citric acid, 
and renewing the acid at the intervals when new acid 
was added to the other groups of bottles. The acid was 
added in these tests through separatory funnels, as the 
bottles were sealed and connected with receiving flasks 
containing lime water, the latter having to take care of 



142 



the carbonic acid, if fermentation proceeded in the bot- 
tles containing the soil and solvent. While waiting for 
some indications of fermentation to be given by these 
tests, a very excellent observation was made by First As- 
sistant Crawley. At the time of titrating Avith alkali 
solution, at the end of an interval, Mr. Crawley placed a 
portion of solution which was notably acid, over a burner 
and heated gently for several minutes; after cooling, the 
solution was no longer acid, but even reacted alkaline, 
showing that the acidity was due wholly to carbonic 
acid, no citric acid being present. 

That observation led us to examine and find out 
whether it Avas the cUric acid itself, or citrates formed with 
the soil bases, which had undergone fermentation? — a 
question suggested to the writer by previous observa- 
tions. The examination and its results are found in the 
following data, the upland 1-10 examples being used for 
the examinations. 

April 2, 10 ocl., 25cc. solution required 8T.2cc. of 
50TT alkali to u(mtralize the acidity, due wholly to 
carbonic acid. At this time citric acid was added to the 
solution in the bottle which was equal to lOOcc. a^tr 
alkali. Therefore, at 10 ocl. the acidity of the solution 
may be expressed as follows: 

Acidity due to Carbonic Acid == 87.2 

Acidity due to Citric Acid ^-100.0 

Total Acidity of tlie Solution =187.2 

April 2, 10 ocl. Acidity due to Citric Acid =100.0 

" 3 ocl. Acidity dne to Citric Acid = 16.0 

Decrease in Acidity dne to Citric Acid . . == 84.0 

April 2. 10 ocl. Acidity due to Carbonic Acid = 87.2 

" 8 ocl. Acidity dne to Carbonic Acid =101.5 

Increase in Acidity due to Carbonic Acid = 14.3 

April 3, 9 ocl. A. M. Total Acidity = 35.5 

wholly due to Carbonic Acid. 



143 



In the first place, it is seen that of the 100 parts of citric 
acid added to the soil and solution at 10 ocl,, 84 parts 
had disappeared by 3 ocl., or in 5 hours. That these 84 
parts of citric acid had not fermented, furnishing car- 
bonic acid, is indicated by the fact that the carbonic 
acid had increased from 87.2 parts to only 101.5 parts, or 
by merely 14.3 parts; showing that the citric acid had 
largely formed citrates with the soil bases. . The increase 
of 14.3 parts of carbonic acid shows, however, that either 
a portion of the unfixed citric acid, or of the formed 
citrates, had fermented, thus yielding the increase of 
carbonic acid. But, bearing in mind the short period of 
five hours that was required to fix 84 parts, out of 100 
parts of citric acid, and further, the large amount of 
acid found in the solutions several days after acid had 
been added, it is indicated that the carbonic acid is de- 
rived from the fermentation of the citrates, rather than 
of the citric acid; although other observations have 
shown how easily citric acid, in dilute solutions, under- 
goes decomposition when not in contact with a soil. By 
the reduced amount of carbonic acid found in the solution 
on the next day, April 3, it is shown that a i)art of it had 
also been fixed by the bases; and this fixing of the car- 
bonic acid is uniformly observed to occur in greater 
proportion in the neutral lowland soils than in the up- 
land soils, which latter we have found to be five-fold 
more acid than the lowland soils. 

The observations upon methods that have just been 
recorded indicate how abstruse must be the processes 
operating in Nature, and how far these are, at present, 
beyond our understanding. We set out to observe the 
action of citric acid, as a solvent, upon our soils: We have 
observed that whilst a solvent action was primarily 



lU 



caused by the citric acid', the continuance of the action 
was due to the secondai'y action of carbonic acid which 
resulted from the decomposition of the citric acid. How 
much of the followiu"' results is directly due to citric 
and carbonic acids respectiyely, we, at present, cannot 
say; but, indirectly the whole may be ascribed to citric 
acid. 

Results of the "Time Experiments" with Citric Acid. — 
We shall now <»iye the results of the action of the dif- 
ferent strengths of solutions of citric acid upon the up- 
land and lowland soils coyering the giyen periods of time, 
and shall append the results of the action of irotrr alone, 
which was also observed, in order that we may approach 
more nearly to the precise action of the acid. 



UPLAND SOILS. 

ACTION OF ONE-TENTH PER CENT SOLUTION OF CITRIC ACID. 



Date of Analysis. 


Time of Action. 


CaO 


KaO 


P2 O5 Fe, AU Oe 


Si O2 


Febuary 2 

23 

April 9 

June 4 


12 days 

33 " 

78 " 

103 " 


Per 
cent. 

.0131 

.0257 
.0240 
.0202 


Per 
cent. 

.0132 
.0264 
.0181 
.0175 


Per Percent, 
cent. ' 

0008 


Per 
cent. 


0008 




.0019 .1089 
.00281 .0878 


"0046 



ACTION OF ONE-FIFTIETH PER CENT SOIiUTION OF CITRIC ACID. 



Date of Anal.vsis. 


Time of Action. 


CaO 

Per 
cent. 

.0097 
.0136 
.0129 
.0125 


K.O 


F=05 


Fea Ala Oe 


SiO., 


Febuary 2 

" 23 


12 davs 

33 " 

78 " 

103 " 

Act 

2 days 

120 " 


Per 
cent. 

'0223 
.0146 
0186 


Per 
cent. 

.0008 
.0009 
.0011 
.0015 


Per cent. 


Per 
cent. 






April 9 

June 4 


.0279 
.0268 

"'623i"" 


^0041 




ion of ' 

.0032 
.0097 


Water. 

.0033 
0149 


.0001 
.0007 


'!6646 



145 



LOWLAND SOILS. 

ACTION OF ONE-TENTH SOLUTION OF CITBIC ACID. 



Date of Analysis. 


Time of Action. 


CaO 


K.O 


P2O6 


Fe.Al Oe 


Si O2 


February 2 


12 days 

33 " 

78 " 

103 " 


Per 
cent. 

.0175 
.0400 
0221 
.0234 


Per 
cent. 

.0203 
.0291 
0306 
0207 


Per 
cent. 

.0007 
.0010 
.0015 
.0018 


Per 
cent. 


Per 
cent. 


23 




April 9 

June 4 


.0527 

.0288 


' "0067 

















ACTION OF ONE-FIFTIETH PEE CENT SOLUTION OF CITRIC ACID. 



Date of Analysis. 



Febuary 2 

" 23 

April 9 

June 4 



Time of Action. 



12 days. 
33 " . 

78 " . 
103 " . 



2 days 
120 " 



CaO 


K2 


P. O5 

Per 
cent 

.0005 
.0012 
.0011 
.0016 

.0003 
.0004 


Fe„AI,06 


SiO, 


Per 
cent 

0110 


Per 
cent. 

.0187 
0326 
.0245 
.0167 

Water 

.0047 
.0168 


Per cent. 


Per 

cent. 


0216 
.0191 
.0140 

ion of 

0054 


'";6l99" 
.0144 


'!6643 


.0170 


.0111 


.0045 



lu the first place, it is seen, in general, how completely 
the behaviour of the upland and lowland soils is in agree- 
ment with all comparative observations previously re 
corded. Throughout, and under the several actions of 
water, one-fiftieth, and one-tenth per cent, solutions of 
citric acid, more lime and potash is found soluble in the 
lowland than in the upland soils. This is due, as we 
may again explain, to the greater acidity of the upland 
soils. This greater acidity, which has already been said 
to be five-fold the acidity of the lowland soils, has been, 
and is still, constantly exercising a higher solvent action 
upon the upland soils, and the greater rainfall on the 
high lands, which is the cause of the greater acidity, has 
washed down to lower lands, or into the sea, the lime 
and potash as they were brought into solution. Con- 
10 



146 



sequeiitl.v the weak acid solutions used in the laboratory 
do not find as much of these elements in the soils from 
above as beloAV, because they have been removed by 
natural action. On the other hand, fully double the 
amount of iron and alumina are taken out of the u]^land 
soils that the weak acids lind soluble in the lowlands. 
And in the upland soils is found just twice the proportion 
of ferrous iron that our method could detect in the low- 
land samples. This confirms our remarks in last year's 
report concerniuii- the action of the excess of organic mat- 
ter in the uplands in reducing' the iron. "The soil, cover- 
ed and filled with vegetation, the result of excess of rain- 
fall, has caused the iron to give up a part of its oxygen;" 
and in the first part <^f these investigations were con- 
firmed other remarks in the same report, viz: "the low 
iron oxide unites with mineral acids in the soil, forming 
salts, actually poisonous to plant life." The examination 
of soils, sub-soils, and given decomposition products of 
lava from, and near by, certain so-called "poisoned spots" 
showed the presence of notable amounts of these low 
oxide of iron compounds. 

Attention is called to the behaviour of the soils and 
solvents, which is brought to view by the third series 
of analyses recorded on April 9, In the first place, it 
is seen that on Feb. 23 the proportions of lime and potash 
found in solution are quite double the amounts noted on 
Feb. 2, and this is seen uniformly in all the series. The 
analyses of April 9, at the end of 78 days, present a com- 
plete change in the results of the solvent action of the 
solutions. The lime and potash found soluble on Feb. 
28 had largely reverted to a state of insolubility, and 
this reversion continued to take place up to the time of 
the last analyses on June 4, at the end of 103 days. That 



147 



there was uo accident or error in the observations is 
attested by tlie nniform operation of the change throngh- 
out all the series. 

In explanation of the reversion of a part of the dissolv- 
ed elements to a more insoluble state, we shall relate 
the behaviour of the soils and solvents placed in the 
two closed bottles for the purpose of controlling' the 
fermentation that might go on. Eight weeks after these 
fermentation-control tests were started, a strong fer- 
mentation set in, which was indicated by the foaming 
of the solution in the bottles, and the carbonic acid gas 
given off, which passed over into the receiver containing 
lime water. Up to this time the fermentation had been 
small and slow, and very little carbonic acid had b.een 
released. The acid given off at the time of this violent 
fermentation was enough to form a notable weight of 
carbonate of lime. Well, a corresponding fermentation 
took place in the series of bottles that were standing for 
analysis. In these bottles the fermentation did not ap- 
pear to proceed so violently as in the fermentation-con- 
trol bottles; but that may have been due to the former 
not having been firmly closed, whereby the carbonic acid 
escaped as it formed. At the time of the analysis of the 
third series on April 9, the soils and solutions had an 
actually rotten odor, showing that a low, destructive 
fermentation had gone on. A reddish-yellow scum was 
left on the insides of the bottles, the result apparently 
of the decomposition of the iron compounds in solution. 
It is strongly indicated that the acute fermentation was 
connected with the additions of citric acid; because two 
other bottles containing the same portions of the same 
soils, to which onli/ water was added every fourth day, 
at the intervals when citric acid solution was added to 



148 



the other series, were perfectly sweet, and remaiued 
sweet, and without the indications of much fermentation, 
at the end of a period of 120 days. The reversion then, 
of a part of the previously dissolved elements took place 
at the time of the strong fermentation observ^ed within 
the bottles, and was due to the carbonic acid given off 
by the decomposition of the citrates, and probably of 
some of the organic matter in the soils. 

Concerning the actual amount of lime and potash found 
in the acid solutions at the end of 103 days, it is seen, by 
returning to the last tables, that there is less of these 
two elements in the one-fiftieth per cent, solution of citric 
acid than was taken out by the water alone. The fermen- 
tation of the citrates, and the carbonic acid produced, 
rendered the soil as a whole, less soluble in water than 
it was naturally. The continued addition of dilute citric 
acid, however, while it rendered the soil as a whole less 
soluble in water, acted upon the constituents, causing a 
notable change in the way in which they behaved towards 
an one per cent, solution of citric acid as compared with 
their behaviour under the action of the same strength of 
acid upon the natural soil. This is shown by the analy- 
tical results of the action of the one per cent, citric acid 
upon the natural soils, and upon these soils at the end 
of their treatment with the weak solutions of citric acid 
after a period of 103 days: 

A — represents the amount of the elements dissolved 
by the one per cent, citric acid out of the natural soil. 

B — the amount of the elements dissolved by the same 
strength of acid out of the soils that had been acted 
upon by an one-tenth per cent, solution of citric acid for 
the period of 103 days. 



149 



Soils. 

Upland 

Lowland 



CaO 



Per 
cent. 



K.O I P2O5 



Per 
cent 



Per 
cent. 



1110 0260 0037 
126S0 0308 0092 
1250,0 0450 0035 
0.124710 0429 0063 



Pe., O.n A1.,0 



Per 
cent. 

0.421 
1 379 

1 291 



Per 
cent 

0.222 
0.698 



0.687 



SiO, 

Per 
cent. 

199 
0.071 

170 



Tlie most apparent results of the previous coutiuued 
action of tlie dilute acid is seen in the ^effects upon the 
phosphoric acid, and more notabl^^ upon the iron. This 
action upon the iron we were persuaded of during the 
course of the "time exi)eriments," which was seen, first 
in the coloration of the solution by the dissolved iron, 
and, as the fermentation proceeded, in the formation of 
an iron-colored scum on the insides of the bottles, and the 
disappearance of the color from the solution. The citric 
acid attacks the iron strongly, and the iron citrates, 
formed by the action of the acid on the soils, appear to 
be specially sensitive to the soil bacteria — crenothrix poly- 
spora, cladothrix dichotoma, leptothrix ochracet, and 
other bacteria which are known to act upon the com- 
pounds of iron in soils and waters. 

We shall not discuss further at this time the results 
obtained by acting upon soils with considerable A'olumes 
of dilute solutions of citric acid. Those results have 
furnished data of value and extreme interest, giving us 
a further insight into the complex processes that operate 
in soils; but they have not led us to the actual information 
we are in search of. The conditions of our methods were 
not such as must exist in Nature. The soils under treat- 
ment were still exposed to a constant excess of moisture, 
although the volume of solution applied was merely 
enough to immerse the soils in the bottles — 200cc. of 
solution to 200 grams of soil. Earlv in the course of 



150 



tlieso "time oxporinioiitH"' wo saw that the excess of 
Avater, in wliirh the citric acid was dissolved, was i^oinji; 
to produce consequences out of harmony with any possi- 
ble processes operating in tiie tichl, and we coninienced a 
further series of observations wliich were conducted 
under (juite different conditions. 

The Action of Acids ix Dilute Solim'ioxs ArrLiEi) ix 
Volume CorrespDxdixg to the Absorptive Power ok tiik 
Soils. — In the foHowini*' series of "tinu' exi)erinients," 
in the first place, the volume of water tliat tlie soils could 
absorb was determined. That volume known, enouiih 
citric acid was dissolved in it to make it exactly an one- 
tenth per cent solution, and the solution was applied to 
known weights of the upland and h»whind soils respec- 
tively, and as follows: 390 grams of water-free soil were 
put into beakers of 500cc. capacity. Wlien putting in 
the soil, pieces of half-inch diameter glass tube were set 
in the middle of the beakers, one end of the tube resting 
on the bottom, and the other end reaching up six inches 
above the top of the beaker, and the soil was filling into 
the beaker with these glass tubes standing in the mid- 
dles. The imrpose of these tubes was to secure a more 
uniform distribution of the solvent; which, if it w(^re all 
applied at the surface, the action would be chiefiy cori- 
fincHl to the u])])er part of the soil in the beakers. One- 
half of the solvent was applied through i\w tubes, by 
which means the solution went to the bottom of the soil 
in the beakers and rose upwards by capillarity, and the 
other half was a])i)lied at the to]), sonicAvhat later, Avhich 
descended by gravity to meet the rising volume, thus 
securing the most even distribution throughout the soil. 
The weight of each beaker was taken at the time of the 
first application, when exactly the volume of solution 



151 



was added to saturate the soils. Every fourth day, the 
weights of the beakers were retaken, the volume of water 
ascertained that had evaporated, and a volume equal to 
that lost by evaporation was added to each beaker, and 
in this added water, enough acid was dissolved to bring 
the whole volume of water in each beaker up to the 
strength of an one-tenth per cent, solution again. This 
was done at intervals of four days, and continued for 120 
days. Only a single series of soils in beakers was carried 
on, no analyses being made until the end of the period 
stated. In addition, however, to the use of an one-tenth 
per cent, solution of citric acid, parallel observations 
were made of the action of an one-tenth per cent, solution 
of asparagin, and upon the same upland and lowland 
soils that were used in the "time experiments" previously 
recorded. The amounts of solution, and of the crystal- 
lized citric acid and asparagin respectively, that were 
applied to the soils in beakers during the period of 120 
days we give as follows: 





UPLAND SOILS. 


LOWLAND SOILS. 


Acids. 


Amount of 
Solution. 


Weig-ht of Acid. 


Amount of 
Solution. 


Weight of Acid 


Citric Acid 

Asparagin 


1027 cc 

1031 CC 


7.50 grs. 
7.55 grs. 


912 CC 

916 CC 


6 96 grs. 
6.99 grs. 



The upland soils, having a greater absorptive power, 
and evaporating some 10 per cent, more moisture, also 
received somewhat more of each of the two acids. 

As there was no excess of solution in these experiments 
our means of observing what had been the action of the 
respective solvents upon the soils during the period of 
time stated was by comparing the proportions of the 



152 



elements found soluble in an one per cent, solution of 
citric acid in the natural soil, and in this same soil after 
the treatment with the solvents for the length of time 
stated. We shall give first the amounts of lime, potash, 
and phosphoric acid, as shown by the agricultural 
analyses, in the soils, which soils have been exclusively 
used in the fornici-, and in the present series of "time 
experiments." 



Soil. 


Type 
Samples. 


Sub- 
Samples. 


Ca 


K, 


P= O5 


Upland 

Lowland 


9 
9 


108 
108 


Per cent. 
0.284 

0.389 


Percent. 

0.298 
0.389 


Per cent. 
341 
296 



We now give the results of the action of the dilute 
solvents, covering the length of time stated. 

A — gives the amounts of the elements soluble in one 
per cent, citric acid in the fine earth of the natural soils. 

B — the amounts of the same elements soluble in the 
same soils after they had been acted upon by the one- 
tenth solution of citric acid for 120 days. 

C — the amounts of the same elements soluble in the 
same soils after they had been acted upon by one-tenth 
solution of astparaiiiu for 120 days. 



Soils. 


Class 


Ca 


Pounds 
per Acre 


K2 


Pounds 
per Acre 


Pa 05 


Pounds 
per Acre 






Per 
cent. 




Per 
cent. 




Per 
cent. 




Uplands .... 


A 


0.1380 


4830 


0220 


770 


0.0052 


182 


u 


B 


1477 


5169 


0274 


959 


0046 


161 


u 


C 


0.1487 


5028 


0293 


1023 


0.0066 


231 


Lowlands . . 


A 


0.1450 


5075 


0.0450 


1575 


0060 


210 


u 


B 


1545 


5407 


0397 


1389 


0051 


178 


(1 


C 


0.1510 


5285 


0.0428 


1498 


0.0066 


231 



153 



These results were obtained by the action of the said 
solvents upon the "fine earth" of the upland and lowland 
soils. In the former series of "time experiments" the 
whole soil, and not the fine earth was used. This state- 
ment is necessary to explain why the one per cent, citric 
acid has, in this series, taken out a larger proportion of 
the elements than were dissolved out of the same soils, 
by the same acid solution, in the former series. The re- 
sults thus also indicate to what extent the action of the 
solvents depends upon the state of fineness of the soils. 

Before discussing these results further, another series 
will be given showing the comparative action of one per 
cent., one-tenth, and one-fiftieth per cent, solutions 
respectively of citric acid upon a soil of a totally differ- 
ent type. The mode of ai^plicatiou of the solvents was 
exactly the same as in the series last described, the 
volume of water absorbed by the soil controlling the 
volume of solution added and maintained, and the re- 
newal of acid being made every fourth day. In this 
series 25 lbs. of soil were taken for each test. The soil 
was placed in galvanized iron buckets of 3 gallons capa- 
city each. Before filling in the soil, i)ieces of iron tubes 
were set in the center of each bucket through which the 
solvent was to be j)artially applied, j)recisely the same 
as in the example of the beakers, and for the same pur- 
poses, viz., to secure a better distribution of the solvent 
throughout the mass of the soil. The results obtained 
with this series on a large scale are given as follow — 

A (Table 1) gives the lime, potash, and phosphoric acid 
in the soil, as shown by the agricultural analysis, and 
the amounts of these elements soluble in water, and one 
per cent, solution of citric acid respectively, in the 
natural soil. 



154 



B (Table 2) shows the rehitive ainoiiiits of the elements 
soluble ill water in the three (juantities of soil after the 
action of th(^ solvents of different strengths, at the end 
of 130 days. 

C (Table 3) shows the relative amounts of the elements 
soluble in one per cent, solution of citric acid at the end 
of the period of action of the several solvents. 





Ca 


K„0 


PjOb 


A.— (TABLE 1.) 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Agricultural Analysis 


8610 
0.0038 
0.3410 


0.5810 
0019 
0380 


1 0500 


Soluble in Water 


0011 


Soluble in One per cent. Citric Acid 


1270 


B. (TABLE 2.) 








Action of One-fiftietb per cent. Solution .... 

Action of One-tenth per cent Solution 

Action of One per cent. Solution 


0041 
0045 
0.0092 


0.0038 
0.0046 
0.0077 


0.0013 
0.0010 
0006 


C.-(TABLE 3.") 








Action of One-fiftieth per cent. Sohition 

Action of One-tenth per cent. Solution 

Action of One per cent. Solution 


0.4342 
0.4544 
5056 


0.0571 
0582 
0543 


0.1498 
0.1408 
0.1482 



This soil was used on account of its ani])le contents 
of lime and i)otash, and the enormous amount of phos- 
phoric acid, which, in distinction from Hawaiian soils, 
generally, is in a state of great solubility. 

To understand more clearly what the aclictu of the 
several strengths of solvent has been, and its relation to 
cro]) necessities, we shall arrange the results in another 
form. 



155 



LIME. 



SOIiUBLE IN WATEE. 



In the Natural Soil 

After Action of One-fiftieth Solution of Acid. 
After Action of One-tenth Solution of Acid. . 
After Action of One per cent. Solution of Acid 

SOLUBLE IN ONE PEE CENT. CITRIC ACID. 



In Natural Soil 

After Action of One-fiftieth Solution of Acid. 
After Action of One-tenth Solution of Acid. 
After Action of One per cent. Solution of Acid 



CaO 



Pounds 
Per Acre. 



Per cent 

0038 
0041 
0.0045 
0.0092 



0.3410 
0.4342 
0.4544 
5056 



133 
143 
157 
321 



11,935 
15,197 
15,904 
17,696 



Increase. 



lbs. 



10 

24 

188 



3,262 
3,969 
5,761 



POTASH. 



SOLUBLE IN WATER. 



In the Natural Soil 

After Action of One-fiftieth Solution of Acid 
After Action of One-tenth Solution of Acid. . 
After Action of One per cent. Solution of Acid . 0077 



Per cent. 

0019 

0.0038 
0.0046 



SOLUBLE IN ONE PER CENT. CITRIC ACID. 



In the Natural Soil 

After Action of One-fiftieth Solution of Acid. 
After Action of One-tenth Solution of Acid. . 
After Action of One per cent. Solution of Acid 



0380 
0571 
0.0582 
0543 



66 
133 
161 

269 



1,330 

1.998 
2,037 
1,900 



Increase. 



lbs. 



66 

95 
203 



668 
707 
570 



PHOSPHORIC ACID. 



SOLUBLE IV Water. 

In the Natural Soil 

After Action of One-fiftieth Solution of Acid. 
After Action of One- tenth Solution of Acid. . 
After Action of One per cent. Solution of Acid 

SOLUBLE IN ONE PER CENT. CITRIC ACID. 

In the Natural Soil 

After Action of One-fiftieth Solution of Acid. 
After Action of One-tenth Solution of Acid . . 
After Action of One per cent. Solution of Acid 



Per cent 

0.0011 
0013 
0.0010 
0.0006 



1270 
0.1498 
0.1408 
0.1482 



Pounds 
Per Acre. 



.S8 
45 
35 
21 



4,445 
5,243 

4.928 
5,187 



Increase. 

lbs. 

i" 

loss 3 
loss 17 



798 
483 
742 



156 



We shall repeat that in all these analyses never less 
than 200 grams of soil were used, and that in the former 
series, with the upland and lowland soils in beakers, 390 
grams were taken. This explanation is repeated in order 
to show tliat the results to the fourth decimal are doubly 
as reliable^ where 200 grams are taken, as the results in 
the second decimal are, where one gram is taken for 
analysis. 

The data furnished by the last series of experiments, 
where 25 lbs. of soil were taken for each test, are the 
most definite and instructive. It is seen that compara- 
tively little change was wrought by the action of the 
solvents in the amounts of lime and potash soluble in 
water. That action added respectively, 10 lbs., 24 lbs., 
and 188 lbs. of lime soluble in water to the amount of 
water soluble lime in the natural soil; of potash, were 
added 66 lbs., 95 lbs., and 203 lbs. to the former water 
soluble amounts. If these increased proportions of water- 
soluble elements were the measure of the action of the 
solvents, covering four mouths, it would be moderate, 
and more in harmony with the jjrobable action of natural 
processes; we see, however, that the amounts of lime 
and potash rendered soluble in one per cent, citric acid 
are enormous, even in comparison with large proportions 
soluble in that solvent in the natural soil. There are 
features in the behaviour of the potash which attract 
special attention. It is seen that less potash is found 
soluble in one per cent, citric acid after the action for 
130 days of the one per cent, solvent than where the 
one-fiftieth per cent, solvent was used. This behaviour is 
also repeated in the beaker series of experiments with 
the lowland soil. Also the phosphoric acid gives peculiar 
results of the same nature. In every exain])le the soils 



157 



acted upon for 130 days by the stronger solvents showed 
less phosphoric acid soluble in one per cent, citric acid 
after, than before the action. These peculiar results are 
bound up with the question of resorption, and they led 
to some observations bearing on the greater question — 
"Are the constituents dissolved by acids actually carried 
out of the soil, or are they, and to what extent, reab- 
s^orbed from the solution?" 

As a first test, a given volume of a solution, which had 
been obtained by treating a soil with a dilute solution of 
citric acid, containing known amounts of given elements, 
was passed through a new quantity of the same soil, 
called A. 

A second test consisted in passing another but a 
similar solution, which had been obtained by the action 
of a dilute citric acid solution upon the soil, through a 
totally different soil — B. The lime, potash, and phos- 
phoric acid in soils A and B, through which the solutions 
were passed, are first given: 



Soils. 


Ca O 


K2 


Pa O5 


A 

B 


Per cent. 
861 
0.403 


Per cent. 
5S1 
0.783 


Per cent. 

1 050 
256 



The results of the tests are now given successively: 

FIRST TEST. 



Elements in the Solution. 


Ca 


K2 


Pa O5 


Fea AI2 Oe 


Si O2 


Before passing thTough. . 
After passing through . . . 


Per 

cent. 

391 

0.432 


Per 
cent. 

078 
0.148 


Per 
cent. 

0.178 
0.050 


Per 
cent. 

0.539 

0.647 


Per 
cent. 

191 

0.152 



158 



SECOND TEST. 



Elements in the Solution. 



Before passing through . 
After passing through . . 



Ca 


K2 O 


P2OB 


Fe2 AI2 Oa 


Per 
cent. 

0.340 
0.321 


Per 
cent. 

0.038 
0.019 


Per 

cent. 

0.127 
0.038 


Per 
cent. 

663 
0.641 



Si O2 

Per 
cent. 

0.199 
0.194 



111 tlu' xvcoud test, the acidity of the solution before 
passino- thi'oiii;ii was=11.2('c. alkali; after i)assiii<j;- 
trouj>li=10.2ec. alkali. 

In the first test the result of passing the solution 
throu<»h the same soil was to increase its lime, to double 
its potash, and to reduce its phosphoric acid contents. 
This appears remarkable (althouii,h we bear in mind the 
basic nature of the soil); for it is seen that the soil took 
up more phosphoric acid of which it already possessed 
an enormous quantity, and gave up to the passing solu- 
tion a double quantity of potash, although the potash in 
soil A is only two-thirds of the quantity in soil B, 

In the S(TO)i(l test, it is seen that, despite the very high 
potash content of soil B, that soil took one-half of the 
potash out of the solution on its passing through; also 
the same soil, although its content of phosphoric acid was 
only one-fourth as large as that of soil A, did not absorb 
any phosphoric acid from the passing solution. These, 
and other similar observations have led us to note that 
there is not any necessary relation between the amount 
of an element already contained by a soil and the amount 
that the soil will absorb. It is indicated that the power 
to ahsorh is controlled less by the quantity that the soil 
contains, and decidedly more by the chemical form in 
which it is contained, that has been hitherto understood. 
The behavior of acid and neutral soils in relation to ab- 



159 



sorption caused us to thiuk that the acid or neutral re- 
action of the solution would effect the absorptive power 
of the soil through which it was passed; and, consequent- 
1} , that the power of soils in the field to hold back and 
prevent the loss of elements bought into solution by 
water may be partly controlled by their acid or neutral 
character. Observations bearing on this question were 
made upon a mixed soil, which was made up of equal 
quantities taken from 100 sub-samples. This mixed soil 
was treated with one per cent, citric acid for 24 hours, 
when the solution was separated from the soil by filtra- 
tion. This solution thus obtained, and containing the 
elements dissolved, was used for the tests, which were 
made as follows — 200 grams of the said "mixed soil" 
were put into a funnel, with a ground top and glass cover 
plate; a given volume of the said solution was poured 
upon the soil in the funnel, and allowed to pass through 
slowly, this being controlled by a piece of rubber tube 
upon the stem of the funnel, on which was put a pinch- 
cock. The solution was passed through at the rate of 30 
drops per minute, and when run through, it was re-pass- 
ed through, thus continuing for 72 hours in each test. In 
explanation of the results to be given — 

A — gives the elements in the solution, which was still 
acid. 

B — gives the elements in the solution after been passed 
through a fresh quantity of soil. 

C — gives the elements in the solution, which was neu- 
tralized with carbonate of soda, before being passed 
through the fresh soil. 

D — gives the elements in the solution which was pass- 
ed through the original soil from which the solution was 



IGO 



obtained, and at the same rate, and for tlie same length 
of time (72 honrs) as in tests B and 0. 



Solutions. 



Original Solution 

Solution after passing througli 

fresh Soil 

Solution neutralized, and passed 

through fresh Soil . 

Solution after passing through 

the Original Soil 



A 
B 

D 



Ca O 

Per 
cent 

0.1387 
0.1629 
0.0633 
0.1535 



K„ o 



Per 
cent. 



Ps Os 



Per 
cent. 



Fe» AI2 Oe Si Oj 



Per 
cent 



Per cent. 

0.0228 0.0052 1.0271 !0.2010 

0350:0 0028 0.8938 10.1040 
0214 0.0031 6414 |o,0591 
0408 0050 1.3130 0.2258 



Test D — shows that the resnlt of continning to pass 
the solution through the soil from which it had be(^n 
obtained was merely to dissolve out more of the several 
elements, excepting phosphoric acid. 

Test C — shows an emphatic absorption by the fresh soil 
of all elements, notably of the lime, silicic acid, and iron. 
This is in particular agreement with observations upon 
the action of dilute citric acid upon neutral soils in dis- 
tinction from the action of the same solvent on acid soils. 

Test B — shows that in the absence of the carbonic 
acid, furnished by the carbonate of soda, as in test 
C, the lime and also the ])()tasli, continue to increase 
in the solution when it is passed through the frcsli mil. 
But almost one-half of the silica and phosphoric acid are 
taken out of the solution by the fi*(*sh soil, with a notable 
amount of the iron and alumina bases. 

Certain of our obsers^atious are in agreement witli, 
and others are emphatically opposed to, the findings of 
distinguished chemists, from the researches of Way 
down to more recent date. This, however, is more to be 
expected than wondered at. The absorption experiments 
conducted bv all other chemists were made with soils 



161 



either of a moderately, or highly acidic character; whilst 
these investigations are with soils of an ultra basic 
nature and this fundamental difference in the soils must 
exercise a determining effect in their relation to solvents 
used in ascertaining the so-called availability of their 
constituents, and in their property of absorption. 

The results that we have given, with other obseiwa- 
tions not recorded, indicate that, in the matter of Ha- 
waiian soils, the action on the one hand, of solvents 
upon soils, and on the other hand, of soils upon solutions, 
is controlled by the following factors: 

1. The basic, or non-acidic nature of the soils. 

2. Their structural composition, or difference of 
chemical form in which the constituent elements are 
present. 

3. The neutral or acid reaction of the soils, due to free 
organic acids derived from the decay of less or greater 
amounts of vegetable matter, as found in upland and low- 
land soils 

4. As affecting absorption, the kind of acid in the solu- 
tion, which will be shown at a later place. 

5. The acid, neutral, or alkaline reaction of the so- 
lution containing the elements, and that is to be passed 
through, or brought in contact with the soils. 

Our several lahoratory modes of trying to estimate the 
plant food availahle in soils, which have caused us to 
traverse a very extensive ground of observation, have 
furnished knowledge of great value, and having a far- 
reaching interest. The results, however, have not pro- 
vided the precise information that we sought, but have 
indicated that that information is not to be found along 
lines, and by methods, of pure artificial research, and that 



1G2 



we iiiust ji;o out into Nature, aud uote the results of her 
processes in the field. Having done this, it may then be 
found possible to use the findings in the field, in combina- 
tion with adjusted methods in the laboratory, to guide us 
more actually in dealing with questions that come up in 
ever^^day practice. 

ELEINIENTS OF TLANT FOOD REMOVED FROM 
HAWAIIAN SOILS BY WATER AND CROPPING. 

In an early paragraph of this part of our investigations 
we endeavored to indicate the materials in soils which 
provide the solvent agents which operate through natural 
processes in rendering the insoluble elements suitable 
for plant food. We dwelt upon the decay of vegetable 
matter, and the acids that result from the decay, which, 
with water, carry on the work of food-preparation. We 
did not attempt, however, to follow the minute and com- 
plicated processes which Nature, with an unknown 
diversity of detail, may pursue in working out her ends. 
These may be infinitely intricate, or they may be more 
simple than we at present can grasp. 

If we cannot follow her methods, we can judge of their 
results; and these are recorded, on a grand scale, in cer- 
tain of the final processes by which her work is carried 
on and matured. 

Elements Removed by Waters of Discharge. — In the 
endeavor to find a brief and comprehensive expression 
of the results of the enormous and manifold action of 
water, and its leaching power on soils, we are usually 
referred to the composition of sea loater. So eminent an 
authority as Professor Hilgard errs in this matter, and 
says "the usual nature of the substances so leached out 



163 



is well illustrated in the salts of sea-water, which rep- 
resent the generalized result of countless ages of this 
leaching process." This statement is found in one of the 
most distinguished of his valuable publications — "Rela- 
tion of Soils to Climate." 

The error of taking sea water as an indication of the 
relative proportions of elements leached from soils is 
suggested by the great variation in the composition of 
the salts found in the different seas. This variation is 
set forth by the great number of analyses that have been 
made of the waters of all seas, certain typical ones being 
given in the following tables: 

COMPOSITION OF THE SALTS IN SEA WATERS. 



A. — OPEN SEAS. 



Atlantic . . 
Pacific . . . 
North Sea 



B. — SUB-CLOSED SEAS. 



Mediterranean 

Baltic Sea 

Black Sea 



0. — CLOSED SEAS. 



Caspian Sea 
Dead Sea . . . 



Si O2 



trace 
trace 
trace 



trace 
trace 



CaO 



Per 
cent. 



Mg O Na, O CI 



Per 
cent 



Per 
cent. 



0.045 0.09.51.108 
0.047 131jl. 026 
0.0320.1581.020 



0.0048 0.3001.068 
0,0036 0.1610.589 
0.01.30 O.O661O. 551 



SO., 



Per 
cent. 



Per 
cent. 



1.946 257 
1.895 0.278 
1.8160.259 



2.1090.571 
1.038 0.072 
957 0.125 



0.019 0.040 0.114 0.273 0.137 
0.215p.417|0.088 1.762 0.024 



The composition of the waters of those several seas 
may be allowed to suggest the different composition of 
the rocks and soils which form the great water-sheds 
discharging into those seas. The suggestion must be 
taken with reserve, however, and before discussing it 
further we shall consider another argument showing 



164 



why the compositiou of sea-water cannot represent the 
relative amounts of the elements removed from the land 
and carried into the ocean by water. 

In the first part of these investigations we gave the 
composition of Hawaiian lavas, and also, in another 
place, the composition of the great mass of Hawaiian 
soils. For the present puii:>ose we shall bring the analy- 
ses of the lavas and soils together. The analyses of the 
soils are absolute, and give the full composition of the 
mineral matter of the soils. 



Hawaiian. 



SiO, 



Per cent. 

Lavas 47.900 

Soils I 29 843 



Al, O., 



Per cent. 

18.230 
27.221 



Fe=0, 



Per cent. 



CaO 



Per cent. 

13.360 8 990 
34.326 0.928 



MgO 



Per cent. 

6.050 
1.407 



Na^O 



Per cent. 

2.200 
1 641 



K„0 



Per cent. 

1.500 
0.853 



This comparison shows that, in the jiassing over of the 
lavas into soils, there have been removed 18 tons, out of 
every 48 tons, of silica; 8 tons out of every tons, of 
lime; 4^ tons, out of every 6 tons, of magnesia; one-half 
of every 1^ tons of potash; and only one-fourth of every 
2^ tons of sodium. We see then, that sodium, which 
constitutes only about 2 per cent, of the original lava, 
is removed in the least proportion of the elements speci- 
fied. This behaviour of sodium is in keeping Avith all our 
other observations, and with what we know of the sili- 
cates of the metal in the arts and manufactures, which 
are conspicuous by their insoluble nature; and it in no- 
wise conflicts with the further observation, that when 
sodium is once made soluble, it is removed from soil 
more rapidly than potash, for example, which is due to 
the different relations of the elements to the absorptive 
property of soil. 



165 



In considering the disintegration of Hawaiian lavas, 
and the elements that are removed, we have to bear in 
mind their difference of composition as compared with 
other rock-formations that are in constant course of de- 
cay, and whose elements are being carried elsewhere, and 
into the sea. We say "elsewhere," for the reason that, 
in the decomposition of original lavas, elements are 
separated out, which go to the making of deposits, in 
large mass, at lower altitudes, whose elements do not go 
direct to the sea, yet they are not accounted for in general 
soils. These results of disintegration were considered 
in the first part of this work. 

It is hardly a matter, however, that is difficult to ex- 
plain w^hy so much lime, magnesia, potash and silica, 
and so little soda, have been carried into the sea, and 
yet sodium compounds compose such a vast proportion 
of the salts in most ocean waters. Lime, and also mag- 
nesia with mineral acids, constitute the material with 
which those representatives of the animal kingdom liv- 
ing in the waters of the seas have built up their structures 
of bone and shell, and which bones and shells have gone 
towards the laying down of those massive formations of 
limestone which are found upon so grand a scale in the 
structure of the earth. The lime of those limestones was 
at one time bound up in the composition of rocks and 
lavas. On their disintegration. It was carried into the 
seas; and from the seas, it was gathered up by the myriad 
denizens of the ocean and stored away in the masses in 
Avhich it is now found. The millions of tons of coral 
reef which encompass these islands, and which our analy- 
ses show to contain over 96 j)er cent, of lime carbonate, 
and one or more per cent, carbonate of magnesia, form a 
most elaborate instance of what becomes of the lime. 



IGG 



Then tlie vegetable kiugdom flonrishiiig b(nieath the sur- 
face of the seas, — its orders draw upon the nitrogen, phos- 
phoric acid, and still more upon the silica, and also the 
potash, which have gone from the decaying rocks and 
soils into the sea. These indications of the behaviour 
of the potash have a very particular bearing upon the 
views hitherto set forth by agricultural chemists. The 
sum of these things, therefore, causes us to look upon 
the salts found in the waters of seas not as the collective 
mass of material which was carried out from the land, 
but rather as the residue of matter remaining after the 
animals and plants lirinfi and multlplyinf/ in the seas, hy 
their selective action, hare talrn out of the n-aters thi- jiiissiiiff 
elements, each animal and plant after ifx manner (Did needs. 
Having concluded that the composition of sea water 
does not furnish any means of estimating the relative 
proportions in which the elements composing rocks and 
soils are removed and carried into the sea, w^e undertook 
an examination of the actual iraters of discharge which are 
leaving the lands at this time. To ascertain the composi- 
tion of those waters at the present time will amply serve 
our purpose; yet it must be borne in mind that the com- 
position of the waters that are discharging to-day will 
not indicate the relative amounts of the elements that 
have been borne to the sea during previous periods of 
time. When original rocks and lavas commence disinte- 
gration, in the first stages of the process, the more solu- 
ble elements are removed first, and in great excess. As 
the decomposition proceeds, and little of the most solu- 
ble is left to be removed, the less soluble elements must 
come more into prominence in the composition of the 
discharging streams. Consequently not only the nature 
of the rocks, but also their age and state of decay, have a 



167 



bearing upon the composition of the material that is 
being removed from them by water. 

Before treating of the waters discharging from the 
Hawaiian Islands, we shall consider snch data as we 
possess bearing upon the character of the waters dis- 
charging from lands in older countries. Unfortunately 
we are not sure (although it is probable), that the data 
represent waters in normal discharge, or whether they 
may not be from streams at a time when the volume of 
discharge was either less or greater than normal, which 
diiferences can affect the composition of the water. 
Again, few analyses of water have been made from the 
standpoint of our present purpose. The reasons for 
water analysis generally, are hygienic, and not geologi- 
cal; and the examinations are seldom full. Judging 
^'•'»ni data that are available, more attention has been 
given to water analysis in England than in other of the 
older countries. We therefore bring together in average 
such analyses as bear upon our purpose. This average 
embraces the composition of streams and springs in the 
southern counties of England — Middlesex, Kent, etc., 
and is as follows: 



Si O.. 



Per 

cent. 



English waters 0008 



Fe, Al, O 



2 Al2 ^6 



Per 
cent. 

0.0002 



Ca O 



Per 
cent. 



Mg O 



Per 
cent. 



0.0096 0004 



Ka O 



Per 
cent. 

0002 



Na, O 



Per 
cent 

0.0007 



01 



Per 
cent. 

0.0009 



Attention is first called by the analysis to the amount 
of silica in the discharging waters. This is very note- 
Avorthy, since in sea waters merely a trace is recorded. 
It is seen that the lime being carried to the sea is fourteen 
times greater than the soda, the great excess of lime be- 



108 



iiiji (hie to the huge formations of limestone found in 
Southern England, and through which the drainage has 
passed. Even the potash is one-third of the quantity of 
the soda in those waste waters, whilst in sea water, ac- 
cording to Regnault, there are only 2 parts of potash to 
100 parts of soda. We shall not use more time in dis- 
cussing the features of composition of the discharge 
waters in other countries. The examples used are only 
given for their value in comparison, and to illustrate the 
truth that the composition of the mineral matter in waste 
waters is dependent upon the nature and age of the rock- 
formations over and through which the waters are flow- 
ing. The composition of the waters discharging from 
the four larger islands of the Hawaiian group will now 
be considered, and in geological relation to the main pur- 
pose of these investigations. 

As soon as it appeared to the writer that a knowledge 
of the composition of the mineral matter in the waters 
discharging from the four chief islands into the sea would 
be absolutely necessary to a solution of matters that 
form an integral part of our main investigation, a course 
was adopted by which waters were selected, and samples 
taken, that should represent the water-sheds of all the 
great mountains that are discharging their waste waters 
through the soils and lava formations of each district of 
the four islands — Hawaii, Maui, Oahu and Kauai. The 
areas of these islands are, in the order of the names given, 
respectively 4,210, 7G0, 000 and 590 square miles, or an 
aggregate of G,160 square miles, or 3,110,000 acres. These 
areas indicate that the project Avas not only feasible, 
but that the conditions, sucli as the existence of the 
aggregate area in sub-areas of each island, specially 



169 



contribute to make possible tlie sampling* of the bulk 
of waste waters with convenience and exactness. 

In the course of the repeated visits to the islands, and 
the slow, methodic tours of study and observation, 
through each district of every island, the writer had 
opportunities to note the location, number, and size of the 
rivers, streams, and many of the springs of discharge, 
from several of which the ciibic-second volume has been 
determined. By means of these opportunities the loca- 
tions were selected for taking samples, which were as 
follows : 

Hawaii. — Kegion of Kohala; from the Kohala water- 
shed discharging in the district of Halawa and Niulii. 

Eegion of Hamakua; representing the main watershed 
of Mauna Kea, discharging at Pauilo and Kukaiau. 

Region of Hilo; the Wailuku river, being the main 
discharge from the slopes of Mauna Loa. 

Maui. — The great watershed of East Maui, discharg- 
ing by way of the slopes of the greatest crater mountain 
on the earth — Haleakala — samples taken from the Paia 
and Spreekelsville streams. Also from the watershed of 
West Maui, the samples being taken at Wailuku. 

Oahf. — From the streams discharging at Honolulu and 
Pearl Harbor. 

Kauai. — From the watershed on the north side of the 
island in the district of Kilauea. From the region of 
Waialeale, and mountains above Mahaulapu, discharg- 
ing at Koloa, and from the Waimea river, which stream 
gathers up the discharges from countless springs and 
streams that descend from the mountain ranges of the 
large region of Waimea. 

Our analyses of individual waters indicate very small 
variations in their composition, excepting samples taken 



170 



from locatious that are affected bj the sea, in which not 
only the sodium increases, but the proportions of the 
other bases have become changed. 

The iiraud average, which sets forth the composition 
of the mineral matter found in the waters discharging 
by way of the watersheds, and from all the areas speci- 
fied, is given in the following data of analysis, under- 
neath A\ liicli we reproduce the com])osition of the English 
waters for tlie instruction afforded by the comparison: 



Waters. 


Si Oo 


Fe. Al„ Oe 


CaO 


Mg-O 


K„0 


Na=0 


Cl 

Per 
cent 

0.0040 


SO3 

Per 
cent. 

0.0011 


P2O6 


Hawaiian 


Per 
cent. 

0023 

0.0008 


Per 
cent 

0.0005 


Per 
cent. 

0.0013 


Per 
cent 

0.0013 


Per 
cent. 

0.0005 


Per 
cent. 

0.0033 


Per 
cent. 

0,0001 


English . . . 


0.0002 


0.0096 


0.0004 


0.0002 


0.0007 


0.0009 







Passing on from the great interest and instruction that 
are afforded by the comparison of the analyses, the 
nature of which we have discussed in previous pai*a- 
graplis, we come into the possession of data which fur- 
nish the most reliable means that we can use in estinmt- 
ing the relative amounts of the elements of plant food 
that are removed from the soil by the processes of Na- 
ture, and of bringing the results of the laboratory for 
com])arison, by the side of truths obtained from the 
field, which facts and conclusions found in the ways of 
Nature must be a standard in judgment. Before pro- 
ceeding Willi the comparison, we shall try to supplement 
the conclusions furnished by the study of the tenters of 
discharf/c with other data strictly furnislied by the field. 

Removal of the Elements of Plant Food by Cropping. — 
In speaking of the removal of plan food materials by 
''cropping," we have very carefully io distinguish be- 



171 



tween the total amount removed by acts of cultivation, 
by rain falling on cultivated land, and by crops, all of 
which make up the total action of "cropping," and the 
small amounts that are taken away by the crops alone. 
We have data showing that of 7000 lbs. of lime removed 
from given lands per acre by cropping, not quite 1000 
lbs. of that amount were carried off by the actual crops. 
Also that not more than one-lialf of the potash re- 
moved was actually taken away in the harvested growths. 
These data also show that any system of judging of the 
depletion, or of restoring, the fertility of soils, that is 
based upon a mere calculation of the amounts of the 
elements that are carried away from the land in crops 
is devoid of any approach to the actual facts in the 
matter. 

In the course of the past three years we have taken 
samples of soil from all districts on each of the four 
larger islands. As already explained, those samples 
were taken personally by the writer, or strictly in locali- 
ties and fields selected by him, and according to his in- 
structions. Those soils have undergone the common 
agricultural analysis, making altogether analyses of 94 
type soils, and 1328 sub-samples. Of this number, 64 
type soils, and 768 sub-samples, were examined in such 
a way as to throw special light upon the present relative 
compositions of "virgin" and "cropped" soils. As it is 
said in the report on soils for 1895, "In taking samples 
of cropped lands, in every possible case, a sample of vir- 
gin soil was taken, corresponding in all requisite con- 
ditions to that of the cropped soil, and a comparison is 
made of the two." The 64 type soils represent both up 
lands and lowlands. For our present purpose we ar(f: 
able to use and consider only the upland soils, since the 



172 



question before ns is the "aniouuts of materials that 
have been removed from the soils by cropping," and this 
question only applies to the uplands, from which the 
elements have been washed away by the rains, and in 
some cases carried to the lowlands, and not direct into 
the sea, which is shown by some of the lowland cropped 
soils being richer in given elements than the virgin soils 
of the same localities. For this purpose there are some 
34 type soils, including 408 sub-samples of soil. These 
type soils are strictly representative of the uplands, and 
were taken from most districts on each island. We have 
analyses of about 140 more sub-samples of cropped up- 
land soils, which correspond in results with the others, 
but as there are not virgin samples to compare with 
these, they are excluded from the comparison. In the 
following table we bring together in average the results 
of the 34 types, and 408 sub-samples: 



UPLANDS. 





Elements. 


Virgin. 


Cropped. 


Loss. 


Lime 


Per cent. 

415 
324 
0.248 


Per cent 

0.248 
0.270 
0.243 


Per cent. 
40 20 


Potash .... 
Phosphoric 


Acid 


16 60 
2.02 



The results of the analyses, which varied between more 
and less than the grand average, show that 40% of the 
lime, 16.6% of the potash, and 27o of the phosphoric 
acid have been removed from the cultivated ii]>l;nid soils 
by cropping. 

The amount of phosj^horic acid rein(»ve<l may appear 
less than the crops would liave taken off. That is not so. 
Upon the uplands, the extreme average production of 



173 



sugar has been 2^ tons per acre, which at 8 tons of cane 
to 1 ton of sugar, means 20 tons, or 40,000 lbs. of cane per 
acre. The average ash content of the cane, as shown by 
numerous analyses, is 0.5%, of which total ash according 
to Stenhouse and others, 6.8% is phosphoric acid. Then, 
according to these analyses, 40,000 lbs. of cane would 
remove 13.5 lbs. of phosphoric acid; consequently 10 
crops, of 20 tons per acre each, would carry off 135 lbs. 
of phosphoric acid. In these calculations the cane tops, 
w^hich contain three or four times the amount of ash that 
the manufactured cane does, are excluded, because these 
are left on the land and the mineral matter is returned 
to the soil, the phosphoric acid being partly washed out 
by the rains with other elements, but more largely re- 
fixed by the iron in the soil. It is indicated that during 
the growth of 10 crops on the uplands, not more than 
120 lbs. of phosphoric acid were removed by the crops; 
yet 200 lbs. were actually removed. 

We have only the chemical analyses for the support of 
this statement so far as the actual amounts of the ele- 
ments are in question that have been removed. But the 
number of analyses upon which the statement is based, al- 
though large and representative, may be too few upon 
which to base an estimate of the actual weights and 
proportions of the several elements that have been lost 
since the cropping began. Although we have no further 
check upon the statement of the actual amounts that 
have been removed, we can ascertain whether the pro- 
portions of lime, potash and phosphoric acid, which the 
soil analyses say have been lost, bear a relation to each 
other which gives to the analytical statement the stamp 
of probability. For this purpose we make use of the 
analyses of the "waters of discharge," which set forth 



174 



the actual relative proportions in which those elements 
are daily and hourly leaving the land and going into the 
ocean. The average of the analj^ses of the waters leaving 
the Hawaiian Islands gives the following relative pro- 
portions. 



HAWAIIAN WATERS. 

Lime 0.0013 Per cent. 

Potash 0.0005 

Phosphoric acid 0.0001 " 



We shall now bring these elements, in the relative pro- 
portions in which they are being actuall}^ carried away 
in the waters, into comparision wdth the same elements 
in the proportions in w^hich they are being removed by 
cropping from the upland soils. As a standard in the 
comparison we select the element lime, and for the rea- 
son that lime is being removed by both the waters and 
cropping in vastly greater proportion than the other ele- 
ments. The amount of lime that has been removed from 
the soils by cropping is 40.2%; therefore we take this as 
the standard, applying it also to express the lime con- 
tent in the waters of discharge, and bringing the potash 
and phosphoric acid into relation with it. The results of 
this comparison appear as follows — 



ELEMENTS REMOVED FROM 
THE SOIL IN WATERS 


ELEMENTS REMOVED FROM 
THE SOIL BY CROPPING. 


Lime. 


Potash. 


Phosphoric 
Acid. 


Lime. 


Potash. 


Phosphoric 
Acid. 


Per cent. 
40.2 


Per cent 

15.1 


Per cent. 

2.80 


Per cent. 
40.2 


Per cent. 
16.6 


Per cent. 

2.02 



175 



These .results are uotbing short of remarkable! The 
comparison shows iis that the elements lime, potash and 
phosphoric, that are being lost to the land, have been, 
and are being removed by the "waters of discharge,'' and 
by "cropping,'' in the same relative proportions. This, 
however, is what was to expected after the previous 
observation, viz. — that the bulk of the soil materials that 
is lost by cropping is not carried off by the crops, but is 
AV ashed away by the heavy rains from the cultivated 
lands. Now these heavy rains, which fall chiefly upon 
the uplands, removing the soluble soil materials, com- 
prise also the actual waters of discharge. But we have 
found in the results of this comparison an ample verifica- 
tion of the conclusions reached by our soil examinations. 
The analyses of typical soils from all districts of the four 
chief islands state that given amounts of lime, potash 
and j)hosphoric acid have been lost to the upland soils 
by the action of cropping in given relative proportions; 
and the analysis of the discharge w^aters shows the re- 
moval of those elements in almost the same i)roportions 
that they are being lost. We have thus a double check 
in estimating the loss of materials from the soil that 
results from the processes of Nature in the field, and a 
two-fold standard for judging of the value of any observ- 
ations made in the laboratory. 

By the aid of these standards we may proceed to ex- 
amine into the meaning and value of the laboratory re- 
sults that have already been obtained. For this purpose 
we leave outside the results, already recorded, that were 
obtained by observing the action of different strengths 
of citric and other acids upon soils for varying lengths 
of time. It was seen that factors, such as resorption, 
operate in those experiments, whose occult action we 



170 



caiiuot minutely follow, and tlio results of wliicli, so far, 
we are unable to estimate. Consequently we shall 
simply note the action of different solvents upon ilie 
same soil for the same length of time. 

The soils used in conducting the further series of ob- 
servations that we shall now record were the samples 
of the "cropped" upland soils which were used for analy- 
ses in estimating the action of cropping upon the uplands. 
By using these soils we shall make the results strictly 
comparable with the standard furnished by the results 
found in examining the waters of discharge, and the 
action of cropping. The actual sample used was made 
up by putting together equal weights of the type soils 
already described. This was done to save time, the 
averaging of the soils before analysis being made, instead 
of the averaging of the results of the individual analyses 
of each soil at the other end. In each test 200 grams of 
soil were taken, and acted upon by an one j^er cent, 
solution of each solvent for 24 hours, all conditions being 
strictly the same. The solvents used were citric, tartaric, 
oxalic and acetic acids; and as])aragin and aspartic acid. 
The action of other amido acids was to be observed, but 
the manufacturing chemists in Germany replied that the 
required solvents could not be sent until specially made, 
so the observations were curtailed. 

The purpose of this series is to note the action of each 
solvent, and afterwards to bring the results into com- 
parison with the standard action of the processes in nature, 
as indicated by the results of "cropping," and the ex- 
amination of the "discharge waters." 



177 



ELEMENTS DISSOLVED BY THE ACTION OF ONE PER CENT 
SOLUTIONS OF THE FOLLOWING ACIDS IN 24 HOURS. 



Acids. 


OaO 


Ka O 


P2O6 


Fea AI2 Oe 


SiO, 


Aspartic 


Per cent 

0.1065 
0.0078 
0.1110 
0.1000 
0.1180 
0.0170 


Per cent. 

0.0489 
0.0117 
0.0260 
0.0240 
0.0240 
0.0226 


Per cent. 

0.0054 
0.0015 
0.0037 
0.0003 
0.0054 
0.0106 


Per cent. 

0.0450 
0.0050 
0.6630 
0.0060 
0.1880 
0.5430 


Per cent. 

0.1060 


Asparagin 

Citric 

Acetic 

Tartaric 

Oxalic 


0.1740 
0.1990 
0.0740 
0.1970 
0.2330 



These data set forth the relative actions of the respec- 
tive solvents upon the elements of the same soil. To 
present the meaning of the data in a more clear and 
significant light, we arrange them in another form. In 
doing so, we also bring them into comparison with the 
standard of results from the action of processes in Nature, 
in order to determine and note the relative proportions 
of the elements that are dissolved by the respective 
solvents, as compared with the proportions of the same 
elements removed by cropping and found in the waste 
waters. 

RELATION OF THE PROPORTIONS OF THE ELEMENTS SOLU- 
BLE IN THE ACIDS TO THE PROPORTIONS REMOVED BI 
"CROPPING", AND BY THE "WATERS OF DISCHARGE." 



Removed By 


CaO 


K„0 


P2 O5 


Feo Al„ Oe 


SiO, 


" Cropping" 

" Discharge Waters" 

Aspartic Acid 


Per cent. 

40.2 
40.2 
40.2 
40.2 
40.2 
40.2 
40.2 
40.2 


Per cent. 

16.6 
15.1 
18.1 
59.8 

8.7 

9.6 

8.1 
53.1 


Per cent. 

2.02 
2 80 
2.02 
7.70 
1.08 
0.01 
1.80 
24.90 


Per cent. 

'"'15.00' 
16.90 
62.40 
238.90 
24.00 
63.70 
1276.40 


Per cent. 

71.5' ' 
40 


Asparagin 

Citric Acid 

Acetic Acid 

Tartaric Acid 


892.0 
71.8 
29.6 
66 6 


Oxalic Acid 


548.2 



This table of results, showing the action of the given 
solvents as compared with the results of the processes 

12 



178 



in the field, points to conclusions of the greatest interest 
and moment in the study of soils, and in relation to the 
measure of availability of the more important elements 
of plant food. The results bestow a most demonstrative 
approval upon our hypothesis explained in the earlier 
paragraphs of this part of the work, viz — that "the sim- 
ple carbon acids, and likewise the amido acids, must 
exercise a chief function in the processes in Nature where- 
by the more insoluble constituents of the soil are pre- 
pared for the use of plants." In the above table it is 
seen that aspartic acid acts upon and dissolves the con- 
stituent elements of the soil in almost the exact relative 
proportions that those elements are removed by "crop- 
ping," and by the "waters of discharge." Asparagiu, 
being a body having basic as well as acid properties, is 
not comparable with the acids. Although an amid, it be- 
longs to the class distinguished as constructive amides, 
rather than a product of destructive processes, like other 
well-known amides that result from the decay of vege- 
table organisms. The action of asparagiu in dissolving 
potash has been markedly apparent throughout all our 
observations on that body. It is suggested that the mode 
of that action is displacement, the amidogen group (NH^) 
taking the place of the soil bases. 

The action of citric acid requires particular notice be- 
cause of the dominant position given to that solvent in 
all previous considerations on the availability of plant 
food constituents in soils. The action of this acid upon 
the lime, potash, and phosphoric acid is not only very 
far removed from the apparent action of natural pro- 
cesses, but its action upon the iron and alumina, especial- 
ly upon the iron, indicates that a general solvent action 
is exercised which is radicallv different to that which 



179 



proceeds- in the soils in place. The data showing the 
action of the other acids are laden with instruction and 
suggestiveness; yet we shall not give more space now to 
their discussion. 

Having considered the relative proportions of the 
elements dissolved by different acids, and found that, 
in its action upon the Hawaiian soils that we have been 
examining, aspartic acid dissolves the phosphoric acid, 
potash, lime, and other bases, almost in the exact pro- 
portions that these elements are found in the discharge 
waters, and in which they are removed by cropping, we 
shall proceed to the final purpose of these investigations, 
and try to establish a mode of assaying the actual 
amounts of the lime, potash, and phosphoric acid that 
are available, and to give a more special sense to the 
term "available," we shall state avallahle for the imme- 
diate crop of cane. To attempt this we must, most evident- 
ly, leave the laboratory, and go out again into the field. 

In the course of our repeated visits to plantations on 
all the islands, and with a view to the present purpose, 
we have endeavored to ascertain an average of the num- 
ber of years that the uplands have been under cultivation 
and cropping. This is very difiicult to establish for the 
reason that, in the several districts, and even in the same 
district, the period varies extremely. There are uplands 
that have been cultivated for more than thirty years, 
and others less than five years; in fact to-day new lands 
are being broken up and brought under crop. The areas, 
however, which we have more specially considered, and 
from which the upland samples of soil for analysis were 
taken, represent periods of cultivation that range be- 
tween ten and thirty years. We believe that the average 
period must be very near to twenty years, since we are 



180 



persuaded that it is more than fifteen years yet less than 
twenty-five years. It is about sixty years since sugar was 
first grown for sale upon the Hawaiian Islands. During 
the years previous to 1880, when the sugar produced was 
30,000 tons, as compared with 250,000 tons to-day, but lit- 
tle of the uplands of to-day were under cultivation; yet 
some of the lower parts of these uplands in the drier 
districts were cropped, on account of the greater rainfall 
on these lands than on the levels near to the sea. For 
these reasons, and similar ones, we have been led to place 
the average length of time that the uplands have been 
under cultivation and cropping since they were broken 
up, and more or less continuously, at twenty years. Dur- 
ing those twenty years ten crops of cane have probably 
been grown. On some lands more than ten crops may 
have been grown, on other lands they have certainly 
been less than ten; and, as an average, the extreme of 
production furnished by the uplands has been ten crops 
of cane. 

Taking the length of time that the uplands have been 
under cultivation and cropping, and the bulk of produc- 
tion at the estimates given, then our agricultural analy- 
ses of the upland soils show that under the action of twenty 
years of cropping and cultivation, mid during the time of 
prodvction of ten crops of cane, JiO.2% of lime; 16.6% of 
potash, and 2.02% of phosphoric acid have been actually re- 
moved from the land. 

As a result of the action of an one per cent, solution of 
aspartic acid npon the upland soils for a period of 2'} hours 
there were removed JiO.2% of lime, 18.1% of potash and 2.02% 
of phosphoric acid; tvhich amounts of materials are almost 
exactly equal to the amounts of the same materials removed 



181 



from the same soils by ticenty years of cropping, and during 
the prodnction of ten crops of cane. 

By means of the data and conclusions set forth, and 
as a nearest approach to the solution of the main inquiry 
in this part of our investigations, ice have to state that 
an one per cent solution of aspartic acid takes out of Hawai- 
ian soils in 24 hours the same amounts of lime, potash and 
phosphoric acid that are removed during the production of 
ten crops of cane. Therefore one-tenth of those amounts may 
he taken as the proportions of lime, potash and phosphoric 
acid that are available for the immediate crop of cane. 

In concluding this part of the work, we specially re- 
call attention to the conditions that have made our mode 
of investigation possible. In large, continental countries 
it is not possible to compass the processes operating in 
'Nature, and to estimate the final results of those pro- 
cesses, as we have been able to do, in determining the 
actual materials of plant food that have been removed 
from the soil, during a given length of time, by the acts 
of cropping, and in guaging the relative amounts of the 
elements that are being carried away from the land by 
the waters discharging into the sea. These islands how- 
ever, are so relatively small, and all other conditions 
so conducive to the purpose, that our plan has been made 
practicable. 

It is not necessaiy to dwell upon the labor that such 
a mode of investigation has involved, but it is in place 
to repeat our remarks upon the absolute necessity of 
studying the processes of Nature, and the practical ques- 
tions and problems of agriculture, less exclusively in the 
laboratory, and more broadly and minutely in the field. 
The matters that we have been trying to unfold are alto- 
gether questions of the field, and the functions of the 



182 



laboratory are subordinate and complementary to observ- 
ations made outdoors. Soils must be taken where the 
conditions of their origin are understood, and all the 
data of environment carefully recorded. Then the labor- 
atory may exercise its office, and reveal what cannot be 
detected by the eye, and state what is, and what has been. 
But the laboratory results, as these investii^atious have 
shown, have no claim on acceptance or authority unless 
they are shown to be in agreement Avith the results of the 
processes operating in the field. 

One practical effect of our investigations and their 
results will be a notable change in the laborator^^ mode 
of assaying the fertility of soils for everyday uses. The 
common "agricultural analyses" will be largely laid 
aside. "Absolute analyses" will be made where problems 
are met with, such as have been recorded in the course 
of this work. In estimating the present state of fertility 
and for our guidance in fertilization of the immediate 
crop, a reading will be taken of the soil, under the action 
of the solvent that has been found to come the nearest 
to Nature in its results. 



SUMMARY. 



The main features and conclusions developed in the 
foregoing pages we bring together briefly in the follow- 
ing paragraphs: 

The soils of these islands are derived from volcanic 
lavas. Amongst Hawaiian lavas are those which have 
been discharged from craters, flowing and cooling into 
rocks having the composition of normal basalts. Others, 
originally of the same composition, have undergone such 
alteration that they now compose masses having a radi- 
cally different chemical composition and color appear- 
ance. This alteration took place at the time of ejection, 
and under the action of chemical causes, and previous 
to the later action of secondary causes of rock disintegra- 
tion, such as "weathering," which has apparently been 
the only agent of decomposition of certain of the normal 
lavas. 

The study of the different kinds of lavas, and of the 
soils derived from them, has led to the division of the 
soils into types which are set forth as follows: 

A— GEOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION. 

1. Daek Red Soils. — Soils formed by the simple 
weathering of normal lavas, in climatic conditions of 
great heat and dryness. 



1S4 



2. Yellow and Light Red Soils. — Soils derived from 
lavas that underwent great alteration, under the action 
of steam and sulphurous vapors, at the time of, or after 
emission from the craters. 

3. Sedimentary Soils. — Soils derived from the decom- 
position of lavas at higher altitudes, and removal and 
deposition by rainfall at lower levels. 

In addition to the classification based on geological 
differences in the lavas, the soils have been further con- 
sidered in classes dictated by the results of climatic con- 
ditions, and as follows: 

B— CLIMATIC CLASSIFICATION. 

1. Upland Soils. — Soils formed under lower tempera- 
tures and greater rainfall, and distinguished by a large 
content of organic matter and nitrogen, and by a low 
content of the elements of plant food in an available 
state; these elements having been removed by rainfall. 

2. Lowland Soils. — Soils formed under higher tem- 
perature and smaller rainfall, and characterized by a 
lower content of organic matter and nitrogen, and by a 
higher content of the elements of plant food in a state 
of immediate availability, which is due in part to the 
receipt of some soluble constituents from the upper lands, 
and to a smaller rainfall over the lower levels. 

The dark red soils and scdimcutarj/ smls are distinguished 
by a greater and more permanent fertility than the yel- 
low or ]}</ht red soils, Avhich is set forth by the following 
table, including the mean of three years: 



185 



Types of Soil. 



Dark Bed Soils 

Yellow and Light Bed Soils. 
Sedimentary Soils 



Approximate 
No. of Acres 



30,000 
32,000 
20,000 



Yield of Sugar 
Per Acre. 



Pounds. 
10,411 

6,291 
10,301 



The yellow and light red soils, which grow the least 
cane, produce the best quality of juice. 

A comparison of American rocks with Hawaiian lavas, 
and of the soils respectively derived from them, have 
shown that the soils of these islands are totally different 
in type from the soils of the United States, which is set 
forth by the great differences in physical properties and 
chemical composition. Eelatively speaking, the soils 
of these islands are in their youth; and the soils of the 
United States and of Europe in a state of old age. 

A comparison of the specific gravities of Hawaiian 
soils and lavas with the specific gravity of the general 
surface of the crust of the earth, and of the earth as a 
body, indicates that the lavas originate at a comparative- 
ly small depth below the surface, and thus may not bear 
any necessary relation with the interior depths and con- 
ditions of the globe. 

A very extensive series of investigations conducted for 
the purpose of ascertaining the state of availability of the 
elements of plant food in the upland and lowland soils 
has furnished data that completely confirm all previous 
statements on this matter. These investigations more- 
over, have led to the establishing of a mode of estimating 
the elements in the soil that are ready for use, and of 
determining what must be furnished to meet the demands 
of the immediate crop. The basis of this mode of assay- 
ing the present fertility rests upon an actual knowledge 



186 



of the elements of plant food that are being removed by 
"cropping," and which are also being carried away and 
lost in the "discharge waters" that are leaving the land 
and flowing into the sea. We thus have found a rational 
foundation upon which to base a system of fertilization 
that recognizes the differences, and considers the needs, 
of individual soils. 

Our present and future considerations are being and will 
continue to be given to the relations of crops to the soils. 
A knowledge of the soil is an essential in laying the 
plans of such a study. But more than a knowledge of 
the soil is required, since we have to deal with the physio- 
logical relations of the plant to its environment, as well as 
with the soil. 



n 



